Version May 2024
| Upper airway |
| Laryngeal mass |
| Vocal fold paralysis |
| Inducible laryngeal obstruction (also known as paradoxical vocal fold motion) |
| Goiter |
| Neck mass compressing airway |
| Chest/abdominal wall |
| Diaphragmatic paralysis |
| Kyphoscoliosis |
| Late pregnancy |
| Massive obesity |
| Ventral hernia |
| Ascites |
| Intra-abdominal process |
| Pulmonary |
| Asthma |
| Bronchiectasis |
| Bronchiolitis |
| COPD/emphysema |
| Interstitial lung disease |
| Mass compressing or occluding airway |
| Pleural effusion |
| Previous major lung resection (eg, lobectomy, pneumonectomy) |
| Pulmonary right-to-left shunt |
| Pulmonary hypertension |
| Trapped lung |
| Venous thromboembolism (VTE) |
| Cardiac |
| Arrhythmia |
| Constrictive pericarditis, pericardial effusion |
| Coronary heart disease |
| Deconditioning |
| Heart failure (systolic or diastolic dysfunction) |
| Intracardiac shunt |
| Restrictive cardiomyopathy |
| Valvular dysfunction |
| Neuromuscular disease |
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis |
| Phrenic nerve disease/dysfunction |
| Glycolytic enzyme defects (eg, McArdle) |
| Mitochondrial diseases |
| Polymyositis/dermatomyositis |
| Toxic/metabolic/systemic |
| Anemia |
| Metabolic acidosis |
| Renal failure |
| Thyroid disease |
| Miscellaneous |
| Anxiety |
| Early pregnancy (effect of progesterone) |
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