Overview of health effects of climate change

Authors:: Kari C Nadeau, MD, PhD; Vanitha Sampath, PhD
Section Editor:: Andrew D Auerbach, MD, MPH
Deputy Editors:: Jane Givens, MD, MSCE; Elizabeth TePas, MD, MS

Literature review current through: Apr 2025. | This topic last updated: Apr 16, 2025.

INTRODUCTION —

Human-caused global climate change results from rising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gasses (GHGs) primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels. The resulting planetary physical and chemical changes are increasing the frequency and severity of events that have impacts on health through human displacement and migration; exposure to toxins and pathogens made more common or that are more widely distributed by climate change; food, water, and housing insecurity; and disruption to health care. This topic provides information on climate change-associated hazards, their health effects, and clinical guidance related to health impacts.

Other related topics include:

(See "Climate emergencies".)

(See "Environmental impact of perioperative care" and "Overview of environmental health".)

(See "Overview of occupational health".)

(See "Environmental impact of perioperative care" and "Overview of environmental health".)

(See "Overview of occupational and environmental risks to reproduction in females".)

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE —

Increased burning of fossil fuels (eg, oil, coal, gas) and release of natural and anthropogenic chemicals (eg, pesticides, explosives, solvents, dielectric fluids), metals, and other pollutants into the environment is having an adverse effect on planetary health and all living beings [1]. Global warming is primarily driven by increased burning of fossil fuels and emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Other activities that contribute to GHG emissions include cattle farming, oil and gas production, fertilizer use, biomass burning, and synthesis of fluorinated gases. Of the GHGs, carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the most predominant (76 percent). Others include methane (16 percent), nitrous oxide (6 percent), and fluorinated gases (2 percent) [2]. The effect of GHGs on global warming depends upon their abundance, how long they are present in the atmosphere, and their global warming potential [3]. As an example, methane has 28 times greater global warming potential than CO₂, but its lifespan in the atmosphere is much shorter (7 to 12 years versus hundreds of years) [4]. The impact of GHG emissions has been exacerbated by the loss of natural carbon sinks due to deforestation.

CLIMATE CHANGE-ASSOCIATED HAZARDS

Heat — Global warming has led to an increase in both average and extreme temperatures [5,6]. Average temperatures have risen fastest in Europe, at twice the global average [7]. There have been increases in the frequency, duration, and intensity of heat waves, defined as persistent periods of ambient temperature higher than the average [8,9]. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a heat wave as a period lasting at least four days with an average temperature that would only be expected to occur once every 10 years, based on historical records [10]. In 2018, 220 million more heat wave exposure events (with each exposure defined as one person aged 65 years or older exposed to one heat wave) were observed globally compared with 1986 to 2005 [11]. Heat wave incidences in the United States have steadily increased from an average of two heat waves per year in the 1960s to six per year in the 2010s and 2020s [9]. Expectations are for continued increases, with some estimates suggesting that within 30 to 50 years, one to three billion humans may be living in extreme heat [12-14]. (See "Climate emergencies", section on 'Heat'.)

Storms and flooding — Since 1880, the global mean sea level has risen approximately 8 to 9 inches due to the melting of glaciers and ice sheets and the thermal expansion of seawater due to increased temperatures [15,16]. Warmer air holds more moisture and results in greater precipitation, increasing the likelihood and severity of tropical storm or thunderstorm conditions [17-19]. These storms can cause severe flooding, property damage, soil erosion, and other adverse events. As an example, Hurricane Katrina caused 1200 deaths, 1.5 million displacements, and approximately USD $170 billion in damages [20,21]. Hurricanes can damage infrastructure leading to decreased access to housing, health care, food, and clean water, as well as increased exposure to pollutants, mold, and waterborne pathogens [22-24]. Flooding can also inundate critical health care facilities, compromising the delivery of care [25-27]. (See "Climate emergencies", section on 'Hurricanes and floods'.)

Wildfires and sand and dust storms — Climate change increases the likelihood of wildfires and sand and dust storms.

●Wildfires – Climate change has led to an increase in the intensity, duration, and frequency of wildfires. Wildfire smoke contains particulate matter pollution, carbon monoxide, methane, and various other compounds directly linked to poor air quality and adverse health effects, and can travel hundreds to thousands of miles from the source [28-32]. Some studies also find that wildfire smoke may grow more toxic over time due to oxidization into free radicals, and house fires resulting from wildfires can create even more toxic compounds [33,34]. (See "Climate emergencies", section on 'Wildfires'.)

●Sand and dust storms – Sand and dust storms have become more frequent and severe in recent years due to increased temperatures, droughts, deforestation, and high wind velocities [35]. These storms contain particles composed of organic compounds, infectious agents (eg, fungal spores), allergens (eg, dust mites, animal dander, pollen), and other manmade pollutants that have led to health impacts, not to mention potential increases in the geographic spread of diseases such as Valley fever (acute pneumonia due to coccidioidomycosis) [36,37]. (See 'Allergens' below and 'Disease vectors' below.)

Allergens — Globally, pollen seasons have been lengthening over the past few decades due to global warming [38]. Warmer temperatures and higher CO₂ concentrations are conducive to more vigorous plant growth, increased pollen production, and geographic spread of pollen [39-41]. An analysis of North American pollen data (1990 through 2018) suggests that pollen seasons are starting ≥20 days earlier with ≥21 percent more pollen volume [42]. It is estimated that pollen concentrations may increase up to 200 percent by the end of the century [43]. In addition, the allergenicity of pollen may be increased by certain climactic conditions such as thunderstorms [44,45]. The effects of drought on pollen are variable. Pollen allergenicity increases with drought and heat stress [46]. Pollen levels in the air increase with drought initially because there is not precipitation to remove pollen from the air [47]. However, levels can decrease during extended periods of drought if the allergenic plants no longer grow and flower. (See "Trigger control to enhance asthma management", section on 'Thunderstorms'.)

In addition to pollen, climate change is associated with dust mites and mold allergy due to rises in temperatures and humidity that increase dust mite and mold levels, and greater time spent indoors [48,49]. Further, dampness in homes in the aftermath of hurricanes and flooding is associated with increases in mold growth and asthma [50].

Disease vectors — Climate change has made conditions more favorable to the spread of arthropod vector-borne, zoonotic, and waterborne infectious diseases [51-53].

●Arthropod vectors – Specific disease vectors include mosquitos, ticks, and fleas that are associated with vector-borne diseases such as dengue, malaria, yellow fever, Zika, Lyme disease, schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile fever [54]. Humidity, rainfall, and temperature changes can alter the habits and survival of arthropod vectors (eg, ticks and mosquitos) and influence disease transmission and burden. Mosquito-borne infections are now present in regions that were previously protected due to cool temperatures. As an example, the mosquito, Aedes albopictus, a potential vector for dengue and chikungunya, was previously unable to survive winters in the United Kingdom but is now endemic in southeast England [55].

●Waterborne – Global warming also increases the transmission of waterborne pathogens by affecting their growth, survival, and infectivity as well as the likelihood of human exposure to these pathogens [25]. For example, flooding and stormwater runoff can overwhelm sewer systems, releasing wastewater carrying fecal waste into the environment. Important waterborne pathogens include Vibrio cholerae, Cryptosporidium, and Leptospira. (See "Approach to the adult with acute diarrhea in resource-limited settings" and "Cryptosporidiosis: Treatment and prevention" and "Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis".)

●Zoonotic – Deforestation and habitat destruction leads to increasing contact between wildlife and humans, increasing risk of zoonotic diseases, such as Ebola virus [56]. These diseases are transmitted from vertebrate animals and humans. Approximately 60 percent of emerging infectious diseases outbreaks are caused by zoonotic diseases, with wildlife pathogens contributing to 71.8 percent of all zoonotic diseases [57]. (See "Zoonoses: Animals other than dogs and cats".)

VULNERABLE POPULATIONS —

Although climate change threatens the well-being of all populations, some are disproportionately affected.

Physiology

●Infants and children – Infants and young children are at greater risk of the effects of air pollution, infections, and heat due to their immature respiratory, immune, and thermoregulatory systems, as well as their dependence on others for care [58]. Globally, around 850 million children live in areas where four or more climate change and environmental hazards, such as wildfires, flooding, air pollution, and resource scarcity, interact [59].

●Older adults – Older adults are also vulnerable to climate change as their bodies are less able to adapt to the effects of environmental hazards, particularly if they have other comorbid conditions [60-62]. They are particularly at increased risk of adverse health effects due to heat stress. The immune system is also compromised with age, increasing their vulnerability to infectious diseases. Decreased mobility limits the ability to get to safety during extreme weather events. In addition, older adults with cognitive impairment are less able to comprehend and follow health advisories.

●Persons with comorbid conditions – Persons with comorbid medical conditions or functional impairments are vulnerable to health care disruptions that may decrease access to care [63,64]. In addition, increased heat can impact the efficacy and adverse effects of medications, especially those used to treat mental health disorders [65,66]. Persons with compromised immune systems are more susceptible to insect- and tick-related diseases and heat- and water-related illnesses. (See "Climate emergencies", section on 'Who is at risk?' and "Climate emergencies", section on 'Risk factors for heat related illness' and "Climate emergencies", section on 'Populations at increased risk'.)

●Pregnant persons – Climate change leads to increased risk of gestational complications, pregnancy loss, low birth weight, and preterm birth [67-69]. Air pollution and increased ambient temperatures are associated with adverse birth outcomes. Some of the proposed mechanisms by which increased heat exposure leads to adverse birth outcomes include alterations in thermoregulation, decreased uterine blood flow resulting in lower oxygen and nutrient levels due to redistribution of blood flow to the skin to facilitate heat loss, decreased amniotic fluid volume due to dehydration, and placental abruption [70-72]. The major pathways by which air pollution is proposed to mediate these adverse birth outcomes include oxidative and inflammatory pathways and epigenetic modifications [73-76].

Socioeconomic vulnerability — Disadvantaged groups face the brunt of climate change due to poor housing infrastructure, proximity to fossil fuel infrastructure, highly polluted areas, increased exposure to heat and air pollutants, lack of access to biodiverse and nutritious foods, lack of clean water, and poor access to medical care [77]. Such persons include, but are not limited to, those living in poverty, those with limited language proficiency, communities of color, and indigenous groups.

In the United States, due to the discriminatory practice of "redlining", neighborhoods populated predominantly by people of color are more likely to lack green spaces, and be in close proximity to hazardous waste sites, urban heat islands, low-lying flood areas, and major highways [78-81]. As an example, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported in 2021 that underrepresented group communities are over 50 percent more likely to live in neighborhoods with high traffic and have the highest predicted increases in asthma-related emergency room visits [82]. These communities also have fewer resources to adapt to the effects of climate change [83].

Occupations — Agricultural workers, construction workers, and utility workers are at increased risk for heat-related illness, especially in settings of heavy exertion and associated generation of excessive body heat [84]. As an example, heat-related mortality of agricultural workers is 35 times higher than those who work in other industries [85]. A study of construction workers found a 0.5 percent increase in the risk of traumatic injuries per 1°C increase in maximum daily humidex (a measure of temperature and humidity) [86]. Construction workers only comprise 6 percent of the total United States workforce; however, a study found that 36 percent of all occupational heat-related deaths from 1992 to 2016 were construction workers [87]. In addition, higher heat exposure decreases dexterity, which increases the likelihood of physical injury [84]. Firefighters, including those who respond to wildfires, are also at high risk of adverse cardiovascular and respiratory disease and cancer [88-91].

IMPACTS ON HEALTH

Overview of health impacts — Climate change is now recognized as a health crisis (figure 1) [92]. As global temperatures rise, adverse effects on planetary health and human health are expected to increase, as the two are intricately connected. The changing climate is increasing heat-related illnesses and deaths; respiratory, infectious, and cardiovascular diseases; and the need for mental health services, and is worsening maternal and child health outcomes. It exerts an increased burden on healthcare systems, while simultaneously impairing their ability to respond. It also adversely affects food security and access to clean air, safe drinking water, and sanitation. According to World Bank data, a warmer climate could lead to at least 21 million additional deaths by 2050 [93].

Heat-related health outcomes — Excess heat is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, with expectations for additional heat-related deaths in the next decades [94-97]. It is also associated with preterm and early-term birth [98]. Direct effects include heat-related illnesses such as cerebral edema, heat exhaustion, heatstroke, exercise-induced muscle cramps, rash, rhabdomyolysis, syncope, and life-threatening stroke [99,100]. Factors that increase adverse health effects of heat exposure include prolonged or intense exercise, lack of heat acclimatization, sleep deprivation, dehydration, alcohol or drug use, pre-existing chronic diseases, fever, infection, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use [101].

Groups particularly vulnerable to heat include:

●Infants and children.

●Older adults.

●Pregnant persons.

●Outdoor workers and athletes

●Incarcerated individuals

●Persons with comorbid conditions (eg, obesity, hypertension, pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, diabetes).

●Persons who take certain medications. Beta-blockers, diuretics, laxatives, and antihistamines alter the body's ability to regulate its temperature and affect water homeostasis [102]. Antipsychotic medications can increase patients' sensitivity to heat, resulting in serious illness or death [66,103].

●Persons who reside in homes with poor insulation or those that trap heat [104].

(See "Climate emergencies", section on 'Risk factors for heat related illness'.)

Mental health — The psychologic impacts of climate change include anxiety and depression and extreme climate event-related stress or trauma [105-109]. Extreme weather events can also impact socioeconomic determinants of health (eg, jobs, housing, food and water security), which affect mental health [110].

Witnessing or experiencing extreme climate change events such as flooding, droughts, and wildfires can lead to mental health impacts such as long-term anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and aggression. They can exacerbate existing psychiatric disorders in adults and children and incite the onset of new disorders [111-115]. Young people may be at particular risk of eco-anxiety. In a survey that included young people from ten countries, nearly 60 percent said they felt very worried or extremely worried about climate change [105].

Air pollution has been associated with depression and poor mental well-being in both children and adults [116-119]. Many studies also show an association between heat stress and mental health [120]. Temperature increases are associated with increases in suicides, suicidal behavior, and hospital admission for mental health conditions [110]. Higher temperatures are also associated with increased violence and sexual assaults [121-124]. Heat events are also associated with poor learning outcomes and loss of school days among young adults [125].

Respiratory illness — Respiratory health can be impacted by air pollution, allergens (if sensitized), and heat and humidity exposure.

●Air pollution – The association between air pollution and adverse respiratory health has been supported by numerous epidemiologic studies [126-129]. Air pollution is a well-known risk factor for asthma, for example, and environmental changes are likely partially responsible for the increasing prevalence of the disease [130-132]. It is also a risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Primary air pollutants associated with respiratory health include particulate matter (PM) from vehicular and industrial emissions resulting from the burning of fossil fuels, wildfire smoke, and sand and dust storms. Gaseous air pollutants, particularly ozone and oxides of nitrogen, are also of concern for respiratory health. (See "Overview of environmental health", section on 'Air pollution' and "Risk factors for asthma", section on 'Air pollution' and "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Risk factors and risk reduction", section on 'Pollution, biomass, and occupational exposures' and "Trigger control to enhance asthma management", section on 'Outdoor air pollution' and "Trigger control to enhance asthma management", section on 'Wildfire smoke'.)

Acute and chronic exposure to wildfire smoke is associated with increases in impaired lung function, increased respiratory infection, allergy exacerbations, asthma-related hospitalizations, and emergency department visits [29,133-138]. Pollutants from wildfires may be more harmful than pollutants from ambient air pollution [136]. Health effects of wildfires are discussed in detail separately. (See "Climate emergencies", section on 'Wildfire health impact'.)

Ozone is a greenhouse gas (GHG) that has been shown to increase pulmonary signs and symptoms such as shortness of breath, wheezing, and coughing, and results in greater risk of lower respiratory tract infections, decreased lung function, airway responsiveness, and airway inflammation [139-141].

●Allergen exposure – Exposure to pollen and mold spores can lead to allergic rhinitis symptoms and precipitate asthma attacks in sensitized persons. The length and severity of pollen seasons have increased with a warming climate, and storms, floods, and increased heat and humidity can increase mold spores. (See 'Allergens' above.)

In "thunderstorm asthma," wet conditions at the onset of the storm break up pollen into small pieces with increased allergenicity, resulting in an increase in asthma exacerbations. Outdoor location at the time of the storm, which would increase allergen exposure, is a risk factor for thunderstorm asthma [142-144] The worst documented incidence of thunderstorm asthma occurred in Melbourne in 2016. It resulted in a 992 percent increase in asthma related admissions compared with the previous three years, and overwhelmed health care infrastructure [145,146]. (See "Trigger control to enhance asthma management", section on 'Thunderstorms'.)

Flooding can worsen indoor dampness and is associated with increased Aspergillus and Penicillium species indoors, particularly in coastal area [26]. Increased indoor mold exposure due to flooding has been linked to asthma onset, exacerbations, and poorer asthma control in children [27]. (See "Climate emergencies", section on 'Hurricanes and floods'.)

●Heat – Increased temperatures also adversely affect respiratory health. Medicare patient data between 1999 to 2008 across 213 counties in the United States on analysis found that a 5.6°C increase in daily temperature was associated with a 4.3 percent increase in same-day emergency hospitalizations for respiratory diseases [147]. Heat has also been documented to increase asthma attacks [148,149]. For example, an analysis of a large national data set in the United Kingdom found an overall 1.11 percent increase in risk of asthma hospitalization for every 1°C increase in ambient summer temperature [150]. (See "Trigger control to enhance asthma management", section on 'Temperature and humidity' and "Climate emergencies", section on 'Heat'.)

Cardiovascular health — The major climate change-associated drivers of adverse cardiovascular health are increasing temperatures and air pollution, including the effect of wildfires and sand and dust storms [151,152].

●Fine inhalable particles – Of the air pollutants, PM with a diameter ≤2.5 micrometers (PM_2.5, fine PM)is a major concern as these particles are small enough to penetrate into the lower airways and enter the bloodstream [139]. In a study that included 60 million United States Medicare beneficiaries aged ≥65 years, exposure to PM_2.5 was associated with increased risk of first hospital admissions for ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, heart failure, cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, and aortic aneurysms [153]. Ischemic heart disease was the most prevalent cardiovascular disease resulting in hospitalization (8.8 percent) and there was no safe threshold of exposure for PM_2.5. A meta-analysis of 18 studies found that compared with low long-term exposure to PM_2.5 levels, an increase in exposure to PM_2.5 levels resulted in an increase in cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular disease mortality [154]. The risk of PM_2.5 may be increased by extreme heat [155]. (See "Overview of possible risk factors for cardiovascular disease", section on 'Air pollution'.)

●Excess heat exposure – The association between extreme heat and greater risk of adverse cardiovascular events is supported by many studies. Continued heat exposure can lead to dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, increased blood viscosity, and tachycardia, which can lead to acute myocardial infarction or stroke [156]. A time-stratified, case-crossover design of older adults from 2005 to 2013 in New York State found a 7 percent increased risk of ischemic heart disease on the days of extreme heat, and increased risks of hypertension (4 percent) and cardiac dysrhythmias (6 percent) on lag days 5 and 6, respectively [157]. A study in Zurich, Switzerland from 2000 to 2015 found an increased risk of mortality with excess heat exposure of 24°C (odds ratio 1.28) compared with the optimum temperature of 20°C [158]. A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study found a 72.4 percent increase from 1990 to 2021 in the stroke disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) count attributable to high ambient temperature [159]. (See "Nonexertional (classic) heat stroke in adults", section on 'Complications and sequelae'.)

Infectious diseases — Climate change has made conditions more favorable for the spread of vector-borne, zoonotic, foodborne, and waterborne infectious diseases [53]. (See 'Disease vectors' above.)

●Arthropod-associated diseases – The number of arthropod-associated illnesses reported to the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention from 2004 to 2018 more than doubled [160]. Despite initiatives such as improving access to insecticide-treated nets, malarial infections spread by the female Anopheles mosquito have increased from 233 to 249 million cases globally from 2019 to 2022 [161]. Compared with the 1951 to 1960 average, the transmission potential for dengue by Aedes aegypti and albopictus in 2020 increased between by 28.6 and 27.7 percent, respectively [161]. The Aedes mosquito is responsible for the transmission of Zika and dengue. Since 2015, outbreaks of Zika virus infection have occurred in Africa, Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, the Americas, and the Caribbean [162]. (See "Malaria: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis in nonpregnant adults and children" and "Dengue virus infection: Epidemiology" and "Zika virus infection: An overview".)

In addition to mosquitos, ticks are also important vectors for disease transmission to humans. The season in which the black-legged Ixodes ticks, responsible for the transmission of the bacteria Borrelia burgdorferi, can transmit Lyme disease has increased in duration as the summer season length has increased. The geographic spread of the vector has also expanded northwards and westwards in the United States [163]. In addition, geographic spread of Amblyomma americanum (ie, the lone star tick) has led to an increased incidence of alpha-gal allergy that results in a red meat allergy [164-166]. (See "Epidemiology of Lyme disease" and "Allergy to meats".)

●Flooding-associated diseases – Flooding can increase the risk of infectious diseases due to displacement and overcrowding in shelters, water and food contamination, and breakdown of health care services. The devastating floods in Pakistan in 2022 led to a surge in dengue, malaria, cholera, and diarrhea, with diarrheal disorders accounting for 40 percent of all deaths in disaster zones and camps due to overcrowding and water pollution [167-169]. Similarly, in the aftermath of Hurricane Ian in 2022 in Florida, 38 cases of vibriosis were diagnosed, leading to 36 hospitalizations and 11 deaths. This coastal pathogen can cause gastroenteritis, soft tissue infections, and sepsis [160]. (See 'Storms and flooding' above and "Climate emergencies", section on 'Hurricanes and floods'.)

Food insecurity and malnutrition — According to the World Health Organization, globally, 45 percent of deaths in children are associated with undernutrition [170,171]. The World Bank noted that the prevalence of acute food insecurity increased from 135 to 345 million people from 2019 to 2022 [172]. The Global Network Against Food Crises found that approximately 282 million people in 59 food-crisis countries and territories experienced high levels of acute hunger in 2023, a worldwide increase of 24 million from the previous year [173]. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that nearly 670 million people will be undernourished in 2030, roughly 8 percent of the world population [174].

Climate change is contributing to food insecurity. Desertification, flooding, and sea level rise are threatening crop yields and altering nutritional composition of plants. As an example, sea level rise has increased salinity in some agricultural areas in South Asia, decreasing rice crops [175]. Extreme rainfall reduced China's rice yield by one-twelfth over the last two decades, and an approximately 8 percent additional yield reduction due to climate change-induced extreme rainfall is projected by the end of the century [176]. It is estimated that a 1°C increase in temperature decreases wheat yield by 6 percent [177]. Elevated carbon dioxide (CO₂) has been found to decrease mineral concentrations in barley grains, rice grains, and wheat grains by 6.9, 7.2, and 7.6 percent, respectively [178].

THE ROLE OF HEALTH SYSTEMS

●Vulnerabilities in the health care system – Increasing numbers of extreme weather events due to climate change as well as rising incidence of climate-sensitive illnesses (allergies, infectious diseases, heat-related illnesses, cardiovascular, and respiratory health) will likely heighten pressures on health care services [179,180]. Aspects of our health care system that could be affected by extreme weather events include disruptions to the supply chain, shortages of health care workers, loss of access to medical records, and damage to health care facilities [181-184]. Beyond the immediate confines of the health care infrastructure, other environmental determinants of health such as access to clean and safe drinking water and sanitation facilities, protection from vector-borne diseases, adequate housing, nutritious food, and safe employment will be affected by climate change and have an impact on the need for health care services.

There are many ways that the health care system can prepare for climate change events such as by keeping emergency preparedness, disease surveillance, disaster reduction policies, and emergency response plans current; monitoring and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and transitioning to zero-emission buildings, infrastructure, and transport; improving sustainable food practices and reducing waste; evaluating supply chain integrity during climate change events; and educating health care personnel and community on how to protect health in the face of climate change and how to mitigate climate change [185-188].

●Emissions creation – The health care sector is also responsible for considerable GHG emissions (4.4 percent of global emissions, 8.5 percent of United States emissions) [179,189,190]. The main contributor of GHGs by the health care system are indirect emissions involving the supply chain (82 percent) [191]. Many health care organizations are responding in a variety of ways to reduce carbon emissions [192-194]. These strategies are described in a 2022 publication by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality [195] and elsewhere [196,197].

Information is available from the National Academy of Medicine, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, and Health Care Without Harm on how to decrease emissions from the health sector.

The environmental impact of perioperative care is discussed separately. (See "Environmental impact of perioperative care".)

●Education of health care workers – Health care systems can educate health care workers on climate change and its effects on health [185,198-201]. In 2019, the American Medical Association acknowledged the necessity of climate change education, and, as of 2022, 55 percent of United States medical schools have required curriculum on the health effects of climate change [201,202]. Globally, the percentage of medical schools with such curriculum is low (15 percent) [203].

Health care workers should know how to provide patient education to those who are most likely to be affected by climate change. The table provides examples of skills that medical residents should have regarding climate change and clinical care (table 1).

●Advocacy – A number of physician advocacy groups have formed to bring climate change conversation into the health care agenda and beyond, such as:

•Physicians for Social Responsibility

•The Medical Society Consortium on Climate and Health

•The Society for General Internal Medicine

•Irish Doctors for the Environment

•Doctors for the Environment Australia

•Climate MD

The seven-month Climate Health Organizing Fellows Program is open to health professionals and is designed to help develop a skill set that can be immediately applied to climate solution projects.

●Public health – Clinicians and health systems can work with local public officials to help communities adapt to climate change [204]. Such adaptation includes preparing for extreme weather events (development of warning systems, evacuation planning), providing alerts for high pollution including days of high pollen, and providing alerts and shade (planting trees and providing cooling rooms) for days of high temperatures.

PATIENT RESOURCES —

Clinicians learn firsthand the effect of climate change on the health of their patients and can educate and counsel patients on risk reduction strategies, taking into account information as to which patients are at increased risk and most vulnerable to the effects of climate change.

●General information – The following resources offer information about climate change for the general population:

•Climate.gov

•The National Centers for Environmental Information

•NASA

●Children – These resources provide information regarding children:

•Climate, Kids, and Health

•A Pediatrician's Guide to Climate Change-Informed Primary Care

•Information regarding climate change and asthma in children is available from the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health

Other resources are available to clinicians to help educate and counsel patients on how to adapt to specific situations.

●Extreme weather emergency preparedness

•AirNow provides information on United States air quality

•The National Weather Service can provide United States weather alerts

•Heat.gov provides United States heat alerts and monitoring

•National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration provides United States fire and smoke mapping

●Mental health concerns

•The Climate Psychiatry Alliance provides information on how patients with mental illness cope with heat

•The Mental Health and Climate Change Alliance provides information mental health effects of climate change

●Climate emergencies – Patient information regarding climate emergencies including wildfires, floods, hurricanes, and heat events are provided separately. (See "Climate emergencies".)

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

●Climate change-associated health hazards – Several health-related hazards are attributable to climate change. (See 'Climate change-associated hazards' above.) These include:

•Increased heat and drought

•Greater intensity and frequency of storms and associated flooding

•Greater frequency of wildfires

•Increased presence of allergens

•Greater exposure to disease vectors

●Vulnerable populations – Some persons are at increased risk of health outcomes related to climate change. These include infants and children, older adults, patients with chronic illness, and pregnant persons. In addition, those with socioeconomic vulnerability or occupational exposure are also at increased risk. (See 'Vulnerable populations' above.)

●Health impacts – Health impacts of climate change are myriad and include (figure 1): (See 'Impacts on health' above.)

•Heat-related illnesses

•Mental health outcomes including eco-anxiety and extreme climate event-related stress or trauma

•Respiratory illnesses

•Cardiovascular disease

•Vector-borne, zoonotic, foodborne, and waterborne infectious diseases

•Food insecurity and malnutrition

●The role of health systems – Climate change events and related illness heighten pressures on the health care system. Health care systems also are responsible for contributing to climate change and have the opportunity to educate health care workers about climate change and its effects on health (table 1). (See 'The role of health systems' above.)

●Patient resources – A number of patient resources are available. (See 'Patient resources' above.)

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Topic 144966 Version 5.0

خرید پکیج

Overview of health effects of climate change

References