Drugs |
- Benzodiazepines
- Nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics (eg, zolpidem)
- Opioids
- Alcohol
|
Increased ammonia production, absorption or entry into the brain |
- Excess dietary intake of protein
- Gastrointestinal bleeding
- Infection
- Electrolyte disturbances such as hypokalemia
- Constipation
- Metabolic alkalosis
|
Dehydration |
- Vomiting
- Diarrhea
- Hemorrhage
- Diuretics
- Large volume paracentesis
|
Portosystemic shunting |
- Radiographic or surgically placed shunts
- Spontaneous shunts
|
Vascular occlusion |
- Hepatic vein thrombosis
- Portal vein thrombosis
|
Primary hepatocellular carcinoma |