ﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﻗﺒﻠﯽ
خرید پکیج
تعداد آیتم قابل مشاهده باقیمانده : 3 مورد
نسخه الکترونیک
medimedia.ir

Congenital and acquired abnormalities of the optic nerve

Congenital and acquired abnormalities of the optic nerve
Literature review current through: Jan 2024.
This topic last updated: Feb 16, 2023.

INTRODUCTION — Optic nerve abnormalities can be categorized as congenital or acquired (table 1). Congenital optic nerve abnormalities are distinguished by the appearance of the optic disc and surrounding retina. As a general rule, these abnormalities are classified according to abnormalities of optic disc size or conformation and by the presence of abnormal tissue at the nerve head (pseudoswelling). Acquired abnormalities of the optic nerve are classified according to the reaction of the optic nerve to insult: cupping, swelling, and atrophy.

NORMAL FUNDUS — The normal optic nerve head (optic disc) usually is round or oval and pink in color; typically it is flat or mildly elevated and has a central depression called the cup (picture 1). The horizontal diameter of the normal optic nerve is approximately 1.5 mm. The ratio between the cup and disc diameters is important to note because acquired optic nerve damage can cause cupping, an increase in the cup/disc ratio. (See 'Cupping' below.)

CONGENITAL ABNORMALITIES — Congenital abnormalities of the optic nerve are classified according to disc size, conformation, and the presence of abnormal tissue at the nerve head (table 1).

Disc size — The optic nerve head (optic disc) may be absent (aplasia), small (hypoplasia), or large (megalopapilla).

Aplasia — Optic nerve aplasia is an extremely rare, nonhereditary occurrence of unknown etiology. It is characterized by complete lack of the optic nerve, disc, retinal nerve fiber layer, ganglion cells, and retinal vasculature [1,2]. Absence of the optic nerve can be confirmed with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [3]. Optic nerve aplasia typically is associated with a variety of other ocular malformations, including microphthalmia, cataract, anterior chamber angle malformation, retinal dysplasia, anterior coloboma (fissure or cleft of the iris or ciliary body), iris hypoplasia, and persistent fetal vasculature (formerly called persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous). Nonocular findings may include facial dysmorphism, cardiac, genitourinary, skeletal, and developmental defects [4]. Although individuals who are affected unilaterally usually are healthy otherwise, with rare exception, bilaterally affected individuals die shortly after birth [5,6].

Hypoplasia — Optic nerve hypoplasia is the most common congenital optic disc abnormality [7]. In a population-based study, the annual incidence was 2.4 per 100,000 children <19 years (1 in 2287 live births) [8].

Bilateral involvement is more common than is unilateral [8-10]. The hypoplastic disc is small and often pale and surrounded by a yellowish halo bordered by a ring of pigmentation (double-ring sign) (picture 2). Major retinal blood vessels may be tortuous and have anomalous branching patterns. Histopathology shows subnormal numbers of axons. The normal junction between sclera and lamina cribrosa (outer ring) and termination of an abnormal extension of pigment epithelium over the lamina cribrosa (inner ring) constitute the "double ring" [11]. Visual function can vary from 20/20 to no light perception and is nonprogressive [12]. Thus, visual prognosis in an infant is variable.

Superior segmental optic nerve hypoplasia is a subtype of optic nerve hypoplasia in which the superior portion of the nerve is not well developed (picture 3). Most cases are discovered incidentally and it is usually asymptomatic. Optical coherence tomography will demonstrate thinning of the superior nerve fiber layer. It may be misdiagnosed as glaucoma [13].

Optic nerve hypoplasia can occur in isolation, but more commonly there are additional abnormalities:

Septo-optic dysplasia – Optic nerve hypoplasia is associated with a variety of central nervous system (CNS) and endocrine abnormalities [10,12,14-18]. The combination of optic nerve hypoplasia, abnormal formation of structures along the midline of the brain, and pituitary hypoplasia is known as septo-optic dysplasia (de Morsier syndrome; MIM #182230). Septo-optic dysplasia has been linked to mutations in the HESX1 gene [19,20].

MRI is the study of choice for examination of the CNS in children with optic nerve hypoplasia. MRI may show thinning of the optic nerves and chiasm, absence of the septum pellucidum, and agenesis of the corpus callosum. Other common CNS structural abnormalities in children with septo-optic dysplasia include hemispheric migration abnormalities, encephalomalacia, schizencephaly, and posterior pituitary ectopia [17,18]. In a study of 73 children with optic nerve hypoplasia, 63 percent had at least one MRI abnormality, including agenesis or hypoplasia of the corpus callosum (38 percent), absent septum pellucidum (38 percent), pituitary gland abnormalities (13 percent), hydrocephalus (6 percent), and migrational abnormalities (schizencephaly, holoprosencephaly, pachygyria; 6 percent collectively) [16]. Developmental delay was present in 71 percent of patients at age five years.

Endocrine abnormalities are common and may progress over time [16,18,21-25]. Thus, children with bilateral optic nerve hypoplasia and septo-optic dysplasia should undergo endocrine evaluation at the time of diagnosis and at regular intervals. In the previously described case series, approximately 80 percent of affected children had at least one endocrinopathy, including growth hormone deficiency (70 percent), hyperprolactinemia (62 percent), hypothyroidism (43 percent), adrenal insufficiency (27 percent), and diabetes insipidus (5 percent) [16]. (See "Diagnosis of growth hormone deficiency in children" and "Clinical features and detection of congenital hypothyroidism".)

Other syndromes – Optic nerve hypoplasia is associated with many other syndromes and disorders, including:

Delleman syndrome (oculocerebrocutaneous syndrome; MIM #164180) [26,27]

Duane syndrome () [28,29] (see "Causes of horizontal strabismus in children", section on 'Duane syndrome')

Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber syndrome () [30] (see "Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome: Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management")

Goldenhar syndrome (hemifacial microsomia; MIM #164210) [31] (see "Syndromes with craniofacial abnormalities", section on 'Craniofacial microsomia')

Linear sebaceous nevus syndrome () [32] (see "Nevus sebaceus and nevus sebaceus syndromes", section on 'Schimmelpenning syndrome')

Hemifacial atrophy (MIM #141300)

Aicardi syndrome () [33,34] (see "Infantile epileptic spasms syndrome: Etiology and pathogenesis", section on 'Aicardi syndrome')

Apert syndrome () [35] (see "Craniosynostosis syndromes", section on 'Apert syndrome')

Soto syndrome () [36] (see "Microdeletion syndromes (chromosomes 1 to 11)", section on '5q35 deletion syndrome (Sotos syndrome)')

Chromosome 13q deletion [37]

Trisomy 18 [38] (see "Congenital cytogenetic abnormalities", section on 'Trisomy 18 syndrome')

Nonsyndromic mitochondrial cytopathies [39]

Intrauterine exposures – Optic nerve hypoplasia and septo-optic dysplasia are associated with numerous prenatal exposures, including:

Maternal insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus [15,40] (see "Infants of mothers with diabetes (IMD)")

Fetal alcohol syndrome [15,41,42] (see "Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Clinical features and diagnosis")

Maternal ingestion of quinine [43], anticonvulsants [44,45], and illicit drugs [46,47] during pregnancy

Megalopapilla — Megalopapilla is present when the disc has a normal appearance but is >2.1 mm in diameter, regardless of age [48]. Increased cupping will be noted because the same number of axons fills a larger space. Megalopapilla usually is bilateral, and cilioretinal arteries are often present [49]. Measurements of optic nerve function are normal. Megalopapilla probably represents a physiologic variant of normal [50]. However, a rare association between megalopapilla, anterior encephalocele, and midline facial abnormalities has been reported [51]. Thus, no further evaluation is necessary for patients with megalopapilla unless they have abnormal optic nerve function, midline facial malformations, or proptosis.

Disc conformation — The optic disc may be of normal size but have abnormal shape, depth, blood vessel appearance, or surrounding retina.

Tilted discs — Tilted discs are characterized by elevation of the superotemporal disc, posterior displacement of the inferonasal disc, situs inversus of the retinal vessels, inferonasal conus, and thinning of the inferonasal retinal pigment epithelium and choroid (picture 4) [52]. These findings are bilateral in 80 percent of patients. Visual acuity is normal. A superior pseudo-bitemporal visual field defect may be present, but it may cross the vertical midline [53]. The visual field abnormalities are caused by refractive scotomas produced by the regional myopia from the inferonasal retina. Subretinal neovascularization rarely is associated with a tilted disc [54]. As a general rule, no diagnostic evaluation is necessary unless the bitemporal visual field defect is more than very mild. Tilted discs usually do not produce any visual loss and do not progress, thus no specific follow-up is indicated. Rarely, tilted discs may be associated with serous retinal detachment [55].

Morning glory disc — The morning glory disc abnormality consists of an enlarged, orange-pink optic disc at the center of a funnel-shaped peripapillary excavation (image 1). The disc is surrounded by chorioretinal pigmentation, and a white tuft of glial tissue overlies its central portion. Blood vessels emanate radially from the disc, and peripapillary arteriovenous communications can occur [56]. The appearance is thought to mimic that of the morning glory flower. The disc may demonstrate contraction and expansion [57]. The reported prevalence is approximately 2 to 3 per 100,000 [58]. Morning glory discs usually are unilateral, occur more commonly in females, and occur rarely in African-Americans [59,60]. They can be associated with congenital cataracts. (See "Cataract in children".)

Visual acuity typically is 20/200 to finger counting, although various levels of visual acuity have been reported [46]. Acquired visual loss associated with morning glory discs can occur from serous retinal detachment [61,62], retinal folds [59], and subretinal neovascularization [63]. MRI usually shows irregular thickness of the optic nerve ranging from thinning to thickening along its course [64].

Morning glory disc abnormality may be associated with midline cranial defects, including transsphenoidal encephalocele [59,65,66]. Patients with transsphenoidal encephalocele may have wide heads, flat noses, cleft lip and/or palate, hypertelorism, agenesis of the corpus callosum, hypopituitarism, and absence of the optic chiasm [46,65,67]. The symptoms include rhinorrhea, mouth-breathing, and snoring because the encephalocele protrudes into the nasopharynx [68]. The diagnosis of transsphenoidal encephalocele is made with MRI [69]. (See "Congenital anomalies of the nose", section on 'Nasal encephaloceles'.)

Rare associations between morning glory discs and capillary hemangiomas [70], abnormal carotid circulation (including moyamoya disease) [66,71,72], and renal disease [73,74] have been described.

Optic disc coloboma — Optic disc coloboma (fissure or cleft) appears as a sharply defined, white, inferiorly decentered excavation of the optic disc (picture 5). The inferior neuroretinal rim is thin or absent. The defect may extend inferiorly and involve the adjacent retina and choroid; rarely, the entire disc is affected. Optic disc colobomas occur unilaterally or bilaterally with equal frequency [59] and may be sporadic or inherited [75]. The overall prevalence of optic disc coloboma in children is approximately 9 per 100,000 [76].

Visual loss is variable and difficult to predict based upon disc appearance. Macular sparing by associated chorioretinal coloboma is the best predictor of good visual acuity [77]. Colobomas of the iris and ciliary body often coexist. Other coexisting ocular malformations include orbital cyst [78], iris heterochromia [79], and retinal venous malformations [80].

Individuals with optic disc coloboma should undergo renal ultrasound to evaluate for associated kidney disease which occurs in the renal coloboma (papillorenal) syndrome (MIM #120330) [74,81]. Renal coloboma syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by mutations in the PAX2 gene [82-84]. Renal malformations include renal hypodysplasia, vesicoureteral reflux, and, less often, multicystic dysplasia and ureteropelvic junction obstruction. (See "Renal hypodysplasia", section on 'Genetic disorders'.)

Optic disc coloboma also has been associated with the CHARGE syndrome (MIM #214800) [85], Walker-Warburg syndrome (MIM #236670) [86], focal dermal hypoplasia (MIM #305600) [87], Aicardi syndrome () [34], Goldenhar syndrome (hemifacial microsomia; MIM #164210) [88], linear sebaceous nevus syndrome () [89], and Noonan syndrome (MIM #163950) [90].

Optic pit — An optic pit is an oval or round depression in the optic disc that typically occurs temporally, although any portion of the disc may be affected (picture 6). Pits may appear gray, white, or yellowish, and cilioretinal arteries emerge from the pit in at least 50 percent of cases [91]. Histologically, a pit consists of dysplastic retina that has herniated posteriorly through a defect in the lamina cribrosa [92]. The pits usually are unilateral (85 percent) [93]. The most common visual field defects are enlargement of the blind spot with connected paracentral arcuate scotoma [94]. Visual acuity usually is not affected by the pit, but associated serous macular detachments are common (25 to 75 percent) occurrences and typically produce central vision loss by the third and fourth decades [94].  

Macular abnormalities are more likely if the pit is large and temporally located [94]. Ophthalmologic follow-up should be yearly or sooner if the patient notes any visual loss.

Peripapillary staphyloma — Peripapillary staphyloma is characterized by deep fundus excavation around the disc, with an otherwise normal-appearing disc (picture 7) [59]. Mild temporal pallor of the disc may be present, but the blood vessels are normal. Atrophic changes in the retinal pigment epithelium and choroid occur in the walls of the staphyloma. Occasionally, contractile movement of the walls of the staphyloma changes its shape from funnel- to tube-like [95]. With rare exception, visual acuity is markedly reduced and cecocentral scotoma is present; cecocentral scotomas are visual field defects that include central fixation and the physiologic blind spot. Peripapillary staphyloma typically is an isolated bilateral ocular abnormality associated with axial high myopia, although it may be associated with facial capillary hemangioma [96,97]. Children with peripapillary staphyloma should be seen by their ophthalmologist annually.

Pseudoswelling — The following congenital abnormalities of the optic nerve may be mistaken for acquired optic disc swelling. (See 'Acquired abnormalities' below.) In these conditions, abnormal tissue at the nerve head mimics the appearance of swelling (ie, pseudoswelling). (See "Overview and differential diagnosis of papilledema".)

Hyperopia — Hyperopia, or farsightedness, typically occurs in small eyes that have a small scleral opening through which optic nerve axons traverse. Such optic nerves appear small and elevated and can be mistaken for true optic disc swelling (picture 8). (See 'Swelling' below.)

Myelinated fibers — Myelinated nerve fibers appear as striated white patches with feathery borders (picture 9). The feathery borders are caused by differential myelination of individual axons. True optic disc swelling does not have this feathery appearance. Myelinated nerve fibers are ophthalmoscopically evident in 0.3 to 0.6 percent of the population and are seen in 1 percent at postmortem examination [98-100]. Occurrence is bilateral in 17 to 20 percent, and they are continuous with the disc in 81 percent [46]. Visual acuity usually is normal, although enlarged blind spots and scotomas can occur if the myelinated area is of sufficient density. Myopia and amblyopia can occur when the myelination is severe [101]. Myelination of the nerve fiber layer may progress after birth [102], rarely may be acquired [103], and will disappear when affected nerve fibers are damaged. Myelinated nerve fibers may be inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion and are a component of the Gorlin syndrome (also called the basal cell nevus syndrome; MIM #109400) [104]. No particular ophthalmologic follow-up is necessary. (See "Nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Gorlin syndrome)".)

Optic disc drusen — Optic disc drusen are multilobulated, globular concretions composed of mucoprotein matrix with acid mucopolysaccharides and ribonucleic acids that progressively calcify [105]. Ophthalmoscopically, disc drusen appear as multiple round to irregular, whitish-yellow dots or granules within the nerve substance, on the surface of the disc, and occasionally in the peripapillary retina (picture 10). Unusual branching patterns of the major retinal vessels emanating from the disc may also be seen.

The appearance of drusen evolves over time. In the initial stages, they may be "buried." The drusen themselves are not visible, though the disc may appear elevated with blurring of the borders. Anomalous vascular patterns often are present on the disc surface, but there should be no obscuration of disc vessels. Over time, the "buried" drusen become visible as calcification progresses and nerve fibers atrophy. At this later stage, superficial disc drusen have a characteristic appearance and usually do not create a diagnostic dilemma. However, "buried" drusen often are mistaken for true optic nerve head swelling. A variety of tests can establish their presence [106]. Ultrasonography reveals elevation of the nerve head, and when the gain is decreased, noncalcified ocular tissue loses brightness, whereas the calcified drusen remain bright [107]. Ocular coherence tomography can also detect buried drusen [108]. Other methods that can identify drusen include computed tomography (CT), red-free photography, fluorescein angiography, and photographs, using the filters for fluorescein angiography (autofluorescence) [109].

The prevalence of clinically evident disc drusen is 0.34 percent, but it increases to 3.4 percent in individuals whose family members are affected [105]. They are more often bilateral and without gender predilection [110]. African-Americans are much less often affected than are Caucasians. Disc drusen occur at a higher prevalence in patients with retinitis pigmentosa [111,112], Usher syndrome [113], Alagille syndrome [114], and angioid streaks [115].

Peripheral visual field defects are the most common consequence of drusen, occurring in approximately three-quarters of patients. Visual field defects usually are slowly progressive and otherwise asymptomatic, although abrupt and episodic changes can occur. Central visual loss due to disc drusen is sufficiently rare that other causes (eg, tumor and inflammation) must be ruled out [116]. Other ophthalmic conditions seen more commonly in patients with disc drusen include choroidal neovascular membrane, retinal hemorrhage, retinal vascular occlusion, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, and normal tension glaucoma [117,118].

Bergmeister papilla — Bergmeister papilla is white, fibrous tissue that represents persistence of the normal hyaloid vascular system. This tissue may overlay the disc or peripapillary retina in varying amounts (picture 11). Visual function should be normal.

ACQUIRED ABNORMALITIES — The normally developed optic disc responds to injury in three ways: increased cupping, swelling, and atrophy.

Cupping — The central depression in the optic nerve head is called the cup. Its size varies according to the size of the scleral opening through which the optic nerve axons traverse. The cup is characterized by the ratio between the cup diameter and the disc diameter. Thus, a cup that has a diameter 50 percent of the disc diameter would be 0.5 (picture 12). Normal cupping can vary between 0.0 and 0.6, with rare instances of 0.8 being normal.

Cupping of the optic disc increases in glaucoma as elevated intraocular pressure damages axons. Axons at the superior and inferior poles of the disc are preferentially affected. Thus, the cup tends to be elongated on the vertical axis in glaucomatous eyes (picture 13). Asymmetry of cupping in fellow eyes may be a sign of abnormality [119].

Cupping of the optic disc can be seen in infants and young children in the setting of primary infantile glaucoma. Primary glaucoma may have onset at birth, in the first few years of life, or later in life. The later the onset, the less severe the structural abnormality. Primary infantile glaucoma typically presents with chronic or intermittent tearing and photophobia. In addition to cupping, other physical examination findings may include corneal enlargement (picture 14), corneal clouding, conjunctival injection, tearing or discharge, and ocular enlargement (buphthalmos). Children with suspected glaucoma should be referred urgently for ophthalmologic evaluation because primary infantile glaucoma is a sight-threatening disorder. (See "Primary infantile glaucoma".)

Processes other than glaucoma occasionally can cause increased cupping. Compressive etiologies are reported most often [119,120], but ischemia, inflammation, and periventricular leukomalacia also have been implicated [17,121-123]. Patients with normal intraocular pressure and increased cupping should be evaluated for compressive lesions. (See 'Compression' below.)

Swelling — Optic disc swelling is characterized by elevation of the disc, blurred or indistinct disc margins, and hemorrhage and/or exudates on the disc surface (picture 15). Concentric folds (Paton lines) may be present around the disc because the retina is being pushed aside into ridges by the swollen axons.

Papilledema — Papilledema is a subset of optic disc swelling caused by increased intracranial pressure (ICP) (picture 15). Thus, the term "papilledema" should not be applied indiscriminately to any swollen optic disc but should be reserved for cases caused by increased ICP. Papilledema occurs when alteration of axonal transport causes swelling of individual axons. The disc swelling is usually, but not always, bilateral, and vision may be normal. Very brief episodes (2 to 10 seconds) of blurry vision may occur, often with a change in posture. Patients typically have symptoms of increased ICP (eg, headache, tinnitus). Neuroimaging (MRI or CT) urgently is required to rule out space-occupying lesions and/or hydrocephalus. (See "Elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) in children: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis" and "Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri): Clinical features and diagnosis" and "Overview and differential diagnosis of papilledema" and "Hydrocephalus in children: Clinical features and diagnosis".)

Inflammation — Inflammation of the optic nerve is known as optic neuritis. "Optic neuritis" is a nonspecific term for optic neuropathy caused by any inflammatory condition, including multiple sclerosis, sarcoidosis, contiguous sinus disease, or infection. It may also be idiopathic ("post-viral"). Optic disc swelling usually is mild (or may be absent altogether). (See "Optic neuritis: Pathophysiology, clinical features, and diagnosis".)

Optic neuritis usually is unilateral and is accompanied by signs of optic neuropathy such as decreased visual acuity, a relative afferent pupillary defect (Marcus Gunn pupil), and visual field defects. A patient with optic neuritis often complains of pain with eye movement. An MRI should be performed to determine etiology. As an example, plaques suggestive of multiple sclerosis typically are found in the periventricular region, corpus callosum, centrum semiovale, and, to a lesser extent, deep white matter structures and basal ganglia. Optic neuritis usually is treated with intravenous corticosteroids and should be managed in consultation with a neurologist. (See "Optic neuritis: Prognosis and treatment".)

Neuroretinitis is said to be present if a macular star of exudate occurs in an eye with optic disc swelling (picture 16). It may be idiopathic or caused by cat-scratch disease (Bartonella henselae). MRI is not necessary because no association exists between neuroretinitis and multiple sclerosis [124].

Ischemia — Ischemia of the anterior optic nerve results in optic disc swelling (anterior ischemic optic neuropathy). Ischemia of the optic nerve can occur due to various etiologies. Examples include:

Atherosclerotic vascular disease most commonly occurs in older individuals (>50 years) with atherosclerotic risk factors, though it has also been reported in younger individuals (30 to 50 years) [125]. (See "Overview of established risk factors for cardiovascular disease".)

Vasculitis, particularly giant cell arteritis. (See "Clinical manifestations of giant cell arteritis".)

Severe blood loss or hypotension, in which case disc swelling may be unilateral or bilateral.

The disc swelling may be diffuse or segmental (picture 17). Signs of optic nerve dysfunction (eg, decreased visual acuity, a relative afferent pupillary defect (Marcus Gunn pupil), and visual field defects) usually are present.

Compression — Compression of the optic nerve within the orbit may result in optic disc swelling. Proptosis usually is present, and abnormalities of eye movements may occur. Orbital MRI or CT scan is necessary to determine the source of compression. Causes of intraorbital optic nerve compression include tumors [126,127], aneurysmal bone cysts [128,129], orbital hemorrhage or vascular abnormalities [130-134], orbital emphysema [135], fibrous dysplasia [136], Graves' ophthalmopathy [137], and osteopetrosis [138].

Infiltration — Infiltration of the optic disc by leukemia, lymphoma, metastases, or sarcoid can produce the appearance of massive disc swelling (picture 18). Severe visual loss typically is present.

Atrophy — Optic nerve damage from any cause except glaucoma (see 'Cupping' above) results in a change in the normal pink disc color to a pale or whitish appearance. This change is permanent and indicates irreversible optic nerve damage. The color change usually occurs within one to two months of the nerve damage.

Diffuse atrophy — Diffuse optic atrophy is a nonspecific sign of optic nerve damage (picture 19). It does not help identify the etiology of the damage. Any of the acquired conditions discussed above (except glaucoma) can result in diffuse optic atrophy. Unexplained optic atrophy requires neuroimaging.

Segmental atrophy — Segmental optic atrophy can be seen in the following settings:

After an ischemic insult – Superior or inferior hemi-atrophy is typical after an ischemic insult (picture 20A) [2].

Hereditary optic neuropathy – Autosomal dominant optic atrophy (often referred to as simply dominant optic atrophy; OMIM #165500) is the most common type of hereditary optic neuropathy. It is characterized by insidious onset of visual impairment in childhood, temporal disc pallor, color vision deficits, and centrocecal scotoma of variable density [139]. Wedge-shaped temporal optic atrophy is a typical finding (picture 20B). Autosomal dominant optic atrophy is caused mutations in the OPA1 gene. (See "Optic neuropathies", section on 'Kjer-type autosomal dominant optic atrophy'.)

SUMMARY

Normal optic disc appearance – The normal optic nerve head (optic disc) usually is round or oval and pink in color; typically it is flat or mildly elevated and has a central depression called the cup (picture 1). The horizontal diameter of the normal optic nerve is approximately 1.5 mm. (See 'Normal fundus' above.)

Congenital abnormalities – Congenital abnormalities of the optic nerve are classified according to disc size, conformation, and the presence of abnormal tissue at the nerve head (table 1). (See 'Congenital abnormalities' above.)

Abnormalities of disc size include aplasia, hypoplasia (picture 2 and picture 3), and megalopapilla. (See 'Disc size' above.)

Abnormalities of conformation include tilted discs (picture 4), morning glory disc (image 1), optic disc coloboma (picture 5), optic pit (picture 6), and peripapillary staphyloma (picture 7). (See 'Disc conformation' above.)

Abnormalities with abnormal tissue at the nerve head include hyperopia (picture 8), myelinated fibers (picture 9), optic disc drusen (picture 10), and Bergmeister papilla (picture 11). These disorders can mimic the appearance of optic nerve swelling. (See 'Pseudoswelling' above.)

Acquired abnormalities – Acquired abnormalities of the optic nerve are classified according to the reaction of the optic nerve to insult (table 1). These include (see 'Acquired abnormalities' above):

Cupping (picture 12 and picture 13) (see 'Cupping' above)

Swelling due to increased intracranial pressure (papilledema) (picture 15), inflammation (picture 16), ischemia (picture 17), compression, or infiltration (picture 18) (see 'Swelling' above)

Atrophy, which may be diffuse (picture 19) or segmental (picture 20A-B) (see 'Diffuse atrophy' above and 'Segmental atrophy' above)

  1. Margo CE, Hamed LM, Fang E, Dawson WW. Optic nerve aplasia. Arch Ophthalmol 1992; 110:1610.
  2. Blanco R, Salvador F, Galan A, Gil-Gibernau JJ. Aplasia of the optic nerve: report of three cases. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1992; 29:228.
  3. Zhou Y, Ryan ME, Mets MB, et al. Aplasia of the Optic Nerve: A Report of Seven Cases. Neuroophthalmology 2019; 44:332.
  4. Saffren BD, Yassin SH, Geddie BE, et al. Optic Nerve Aplasia. J Neuroophthalmol 2022; 42:e140.
  5. Storm RL, PeBenito R. Bilateral optic nerve aplasia associated with hydranencephaly. Ann Ophthalmol 1984; 16:988.
  6. Weiter JJ, McLean IW, Zimmerman LE. Aplasia of the optic nerve and disk. Am J Ophthalmol 1977; 83:569.
  7. Brodsky MC. Congenital optic disk anomalies. Surv Ophthalmol 1994; 39:89.
  8. Mohney BG, Young RC, Diehl N. Incidence and associated endocrine and neurologic abnormalities of optic nerve hypoplasia. JAMA Ophthalmol 2013; 131:898.
  9. Zeki SM, Dutton GN. Optic nerve hypoplasia in children. Br J Ophthalmol 1990; 74:300.
  10. Hellström A, Wiklund LM, Svensson E. The clinical and morphologic spectrum of optic nerve hypoplasia. J AAPOS 1999; 3:212.
  11. Mosier MA, Lieberman MF, Green WR, Knox DL. Hypoplasia of the optic nerve. Arch Ophthalmol 1978; 96:1437.
  12. Siatkowski RM, Sanchez JC, Andrade R, Alvarez A. The clinical, neuroradiographic, and endocrinologic profile of patients with bilateral optic nerve hypoplasia. Ophthalmology 1997; 104:493.
  13. Wu JH, Lin CW, Liu CH, et al. Superior segmental optic nerve hypoplasia: A review. Surv Ophthalmol 2022; 67:1467.
  14. Ahmad T, Garcia-Filion P, Borchert M, et al. Endocrinological and auxological abnormalities in young children with optic nerve hypoplasia: a prospective study. J Pediatr 2006; 148:78.
  15. Garcia ML, Ty EB, Taban M, et al. Systemic and ocular findings in 100 patients with optic nerve hypoplasia. J Child Neurol 2006; 21:949.
  16. Garcia-Filion P, Epport K, Nelson M, et al. Neuroradiographic, endocrinologic, and ophthalmic correlates of adverse developmental outcomes in children with optic nerve hypoplasia: a prospective study. Pediatrics 2008; 121:e653.
  17. Brodsky MC, Glasier CM. Optic nerve hypoplasia. Clinical significance of associated central nervous system abnormalities on magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Ophthalmol 1993; 111:66.
  18. Alt C, Shevell MI, Poulin C, et al. Clinical and Radiologic Spectrum of Septo-optic Dysplasia: Review of 17 Cases. J Child Neurol 2017; 32:797.
  19. Cohen RN, Cohen LE, Botero D, et al. Enhanced repression by HESX1 as a cause of hypopituitarism and septooptic dysplasia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88:4832.
  20. Dattani MT, Robinson IC. HESX1 and Septo-Optic Dysplasia. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2002; 3:289.
  21. Izenberg N, Rosenblum M, Parks JS. The endocrine spectrum of septo-optic dysplasia. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1984; 23:632.
  22. Willnow S, Kiess W, Butenandt O, et al. Endocrine disorders in septo-optic dysplasia (De Morsier syndrome)--evaluation and follow up of 18 patients. Eur J Pediatr 1996; 155:179.
  23. Sheridan SJ, Robb RM. Optic nerve hypoplasia with diabetes insipidus. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1978; 15:82.
  24. Hoyt WF, Kaplan SL, Grumbach MM, Glaser JS. Septo-optic dysplasia and pituitary dwarfism. Lancet 1970; 1:893.
  25. Traggiai C, Stanhope R. Endocrinopathies associated with midline cerebral and cranial malformations. J Pediatr 2002; 140:252.
  26. Delleman JW, Oorthuys JW. Orbital cyst in addition to congenital cerebral and focal dermal malformations: a new entity? Clin Genet 1981; 19:191.
  27. Delleman JW, Oorthuys JW, Bleeker-Wagemakers EM, et al. Orbital cyst in addition to congenital cerebral and focal dermal malformations: a new entity. Clin Genet 1984; 25:470.
  28. Aguirre-Aquino BI, Rogers DG, Traboulsi EI. A patient with de Morsier and Duane syndromes. J AAPOS 2000; 4:243.
  29. Denslow GT, Sims M. Duane's retraction syndrome associated with optic nerve hypoplasia. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1980; 17:26.
  30. O'Connor PS, Smith JL. Optic nerve variant in the Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber syndrome. Ann Ophthalmol 1978; 10:131.
  31. Margolis S, Aleksic S, Charles N, et al. Retinal and optic nerve findings in Goldenhar-Gorlin syndrome. Ophthalmology 1984; 91:1327.
  32. Brodsky MC, Kincannon JM, Nelson-Adesokan P, Brown HH. Oculocerebral dysgenesis in the linear nevus sebaceous syndrome. Ophthalmology 1997; 104:497.
  33. Font RL, Marines HM, Cartwright J Jr, Bauserman SC. Aicardi syndrome. A clinicopathologic case report including electron microscopic observations. Ophthalmology 1991; 98:1727.
  34. Carney SH, Brodsky MC, Good WV, et al. Aicardi syndrome: more than meets the eye. Surv Ophthalmol 1993; 37:419.
  35. Teng RJ, Wang PJ, Wang TR, Shen YZ. Apert syndrome associated with septo-optic dysplasia. Pediatr Neurol 1989; 5:384.
  36. Büyükgebiz A, Erçal D, Böber E. Sotos syndrome with septo-optic dysplasia. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 1996; 9:497.
  37. Weichselbaum RR, Zakov ZN, Albert DM, et al. New findings in the chromosome 13 long-arm deletion syndrome and retinoblastoma. Ophthalmology 1979; 86:1191.
  38. Pe'er J, Braun JT. Ocular pathology in trisomy 18 (Edwards' syndrome). Ophthalmologica 1986; 192:176.
  39. Taban M, Cohen BH, David Rothner A, Traboulsi EI. Association of optic nerve hypoplasia with mitochondrial cytopathies. J Child Neurol 2006; 21:956.
  40. Donat JF. Septo-optic dysplasia in an infant of a diabetic mother. Arch Neurol 1981; 38:590.
  41. Strömland K, Pinazo-Durán MD. Ophthalmic involvement in the fetal alcohol syndrome: clinical and animal model studies. Alcohol Alcohol 2002; 37:2.
  42. Strömland K, Hellström A. Fetal alcohol syndrome--an ophthalmological and socioeducational prospective study. Pediatrics 1996; 97:845.
  43. McKinna AJ. Quinine induced hypoplasia of the optic nerve. Can J Ophthalmol 1966; 1:261.
  44. McMahon CL, Braddock SR. Septo-optic dysplasia as a manifestation of valproic acid embryopathy. Teratology 2001; 64:83.
  45. Hoyt CS, Billson FA. Maternal anticonvulsants and optic nerve hypoplasia. Br J Ophthalmol 1978; 62:3.
  46. Brodsky MC. Congenital anomalies of the optic disc. In: Walsh & Hoyt's Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology, 5th ed, Miller NR, Newman NJ (Eds), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 1998. p.755.
  47. Dominguez R, Aguirre Vila-Coro A, Slopis JM, Bohan TP. Brain and ocular abnormalities in infants with in utero exposure to cocaine and other street drugs. Am J Dis Child 1991; 145:688.
  48. FRANCESCHETTI A, BOCK RH. Megalopapilla; a new congenital anomaly. Am J Ophthalmol 1950; 33:227.
  49. Jonas JB, Zäch FM, Gusek GC, Naumann GO. Pseudoglaucomatous physiologic large cups. Am J Ophthalmol 1989; 107:137.
  50. Maisel JM, Pearlstein CS, Adams WH, Heotis PM. Large optic disks in the Marshallese population. Am J Ophthalmol 1989; 107:145.
  51. Goldhammer Y, Smith JL. Optic nerve anomalies in basal encephalocele. Arch Ophthalmol 1975; 93:115.
  52. Young SE, Walsh FB, Knox DL. The tilted disk syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 1976; 82:16.
  53. Brazitikos PD, Safran AB, Simona F, Zulauf M. Threshold perimetry in tilted disc syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol 1990; 108:1698.
  54. Stur M. Congenital tilted disk syndrome associated with parafoveal subretinal neovascularization. Am J Ophthalmol 1988; 105:98.
  55. Kubota F, Suetsugu T, Kato A, et al. Tilted Disc Syndrome Associated with Serous Retinal Detachment: Long-term Prognosis. A Retrospective Multicenter Survey. Am J Ophthalmol 2019; 207:313.
  56. Brodsky MC, Wilson RS. Retinal arteriovenous communications in the morning glory disc anomaly. Arch Ophthalmol 1995; 113:410.
  57. Samyukta SK, Abdul Khader SM, Pawar N, et al. Optic disk contractility in morning glory disk anomaly. J AAPOS 2018; 22:154.
  58. Ceynowa DJ, Wickström R, Olsson M, et al. Morning glory disc anomaly in childhood - a population-based study. Acta Ophthalmol 2015; 93:626.
  59. Pollock S. The morning glory disc anomaly: contractile movement, classification, and embryogenesis. Doc Ophthalmol 1987; 65:439.
  60. De Laey JJ, Ryckaert S, Leys A. The 'morning glory' syndrome. Ophthalmic Paediatr Genet 1985; 5:117.
  61. Haik BG, Greenstein SH, Smith ME, et al. Retinal detachment in the morning glory anomaly. Ophthalmology 1984; 91:1638.
  62. Akiyama K, Azuma N, Hida T, Uemura Y. Retinal detachment in Morning Glory syndrome. Ophthalmic Surg 1984; 15:841.
  63. Sobol WM, Bratton AR, Rivers MB, Weingeist TA. Morning glory disk syndrome associated with subretinal neovascular membrane formation. Am J Ophthalmol 1990; 110:93.
  64. Nguyen DT, Boddaert N, Bremond-Gignac D, Robert MP. Optic Nerve Abnormalities in Morning Glory Disc Anomaly: An MRI Study. J Neuroophthalmol 2022; 42:199.
  65. Leitch RJ, Winter RM. Midline craniofacial defects and morning glory disc anomaly. A distinct clinical entity. Acta Ophthalmol Scand Suppl 1996; :16.
  66. Quah BL, Hamilton J, Blaser S, et al. Morning glory disc anomaly, midline cranial defects and abnormal carotid circulation: an association worth looking for. Pediatr Radiol 2005; 35:525.
  67. Eustis HS, Sanders MR, Zimmerman T. Morning glory syndrome in children. Association with endocrine and central nervous system anomalies. Arch Ophthalmol 1994; 112:204.
  68. Yokota A, Matsukado Y, Fuwa I, et al. Anterior basal encephalocele of the neonatal and infantile period. Neurosurgery 1986; 19:468.
  69. Auber AE, O'Hara M. Morning Glory syndrome. MR imaging. Clin Imaging 1999; 23:152.
  70. Holmström G, Taylor D. Capillary haemangiomas in association with morning glory disc anomaly. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 1998; 76:613.
  71. Komiyama M, Yasui T, Sakamoto H, et al. Basal meningoencephalocele, anomaly of optic disc and panhypopituitarism in association with moyamoya disease. Pediatr Neurosurg 2000; 33:100.
  72. Krishnan C, Roy A, Traboulsi E. Morning glory disk anomaly, choroidal coloboma, and congenital constrictive malformations of the internal carotid arteries (moyamoya disease). Ophthalmic Genet 2000; 21:21.
  73. Rieger G. [On the clinical picture of Handmann's anomaly of the optic nerve Morning glory syndrome? (author's transl)]. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd 1977; 170:697.
  74. Dureau P, Attie-Bitach T, Salomon R, et al. Renal coloboma syndrome. Ophthalmology 2001; 108:1912.
  75. Savell J, Cook JR. Optic nerve colobomas of autosomal-dominant heredity. Arch Ophthalmol 1976; 94:395.
  76. Skriapa Manta A, Olsson M, Ek U, et al. Optic Disc Coloboma in children - prevalence, clinical characteristics and associated morbidity. Acta Ophthalmol 2019; 97:478.
  77. Olsen TW, Summers CG, Knobloch WH. Predicting visual acuity in children with colobomas involving the optic nerve. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1996; 33:47.
  78. Villalonga Gornés PA, Galan Terraza A, Gil-Gibernau JJ. Ophthalmoscopic evolution of papillary colobomatous malformations. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1995; 32:20.
  79. Drews RC. Heterochromia iridum with coloboma of the optic disc. Arch Ophthalmol 1973; 90:437.
  80. Theodossiadis GP, Damanakis AG, Theodossiadis PG. Coloboma of the optic disk associated with retinal vascular abnormalities. Am J Ophthalmol 1995; 120:798.
  81. Weaver RG, Cashwell LF, Lorentz W, et al. Optic nerve coloboma associated with renal disease. Am J Med Genet 1988; 29:597.
  82. Sanyanusin P, McNoe LA, Sullivan MJ, et al. Mutation of PAX2 in two siblings with renal-coloboma syndrome. Hum Mol Genet 1995; 4:2183.
  83. Sanyanusin P, Schimmenti LA, McNoe LA, et al. Mutation of the PAX2 gene in a family with optic nerve colobomas, renal anomalies and vesicoureteral reflux. Nat Genet 1995; 9:358.
  84. Ford B, Rupps R, Lirenman D, et al. Renal-coloboma syndrome: prenatal detection and clinical spectrum in a large family. Am J Med Genet 2001; 99:137.
  85. Russell-Eggitt IM, Blake KD, Taylor DS, Wyse RK. The eye in the CHARGE association. Br J Ophthalmol 1990; 74:421.
  86. Pagon RA. Ocular coloboma. Surv Ophthalmol 1981; 25:223.
  87. Gündüz K, Günalp I, Erden I. Focal dermal hypoplasia (Goltz's syndrome). Ophthalmic Genet 1997; 18:143.
  88. Warburg M. Update of sporadic microphthalmos and coloboma. Non-inherited anomalies. Ophthalmic Paediatr Genet 1992; 13:111.
  89. Diven DG, Solomon AR, McNeely MC, Font RL. Nevus sebaceus associated with major ophthalmologic abnormalities. Arch Dermatol 1987; 123:383.
  90. Ascaso FJ, Del Buey MA, Huerva V, et al. Noonan's syndrome with keratoconus and optic disc coloboma. Eur J Ophthalmol 1993; 3:101.
  91. Theodossiadis GP, Kollia AK, Theodossiadis PG. Cilioretinal arteries in conjunction with a pit of the optic disc. Ophthalmologica 1992; 204:115.
  92. FERRY AP. MACULAR DETACHMENT ASSOCIATED WITH CONGENITAL PIT OF THE OPTIC NERVE HEAD. PATHOLOGIC FINDINGS IN TWO CASES SIMULATING MALIGNANT MELANOMA OF THE CHOROID. Arch Ophthalmol 1963; 70:346.
  93. Brown GC, Tasman W. Congenital Anomalies of the Optic Disc, Grune & Stratton, New York 1983. p.31.
  94. Brown GC, Shields JA, Goldberg RE. Congenital pits of the optic nerve head. II. Clinical studies in humans. Ophthalmology 1980; 87:51.
  95. Wise JB, MacLean AL, Gass JD. Contractile peripapillary staphyloma. Arch Ophthalmol 1966; 75:626.
  96. Kiratli H, Bozkurt B, Mocan C. Peripapillary staphyloma associated with orofacial capillary hemangioma. Ophthalmic Genet 2001; 22:249.
  97. Gottlieb JL, Prieto DM, Vander JF, et al. Peripapillary staphyloma. Am J Ophthalmol 1997; 124:249.
  98. Duke-Elder S. Congenital deformities. In: System of Ophthalmology, Mosby, St. Louis 1963. Vol 3, p.661.
  99. Kodama T, Hayasaka S, Setogawa T. Myelinated retinal nerve fibers: prevalence, location and effect on visual acuity. Ophthalmologica 1990; 200:77.
  100. Straatsma BR, Foos RY, Heckenlively JR, Taylor GN. Myelinated retinal nerve fibers. Am J Ophthalmol 1981; 91:25.
  101. Ellis GS Jr, Frey T, Gouterman RZ. Myelinated nerve fibers, axial myopia, and refractory amblyopia: an organic disease. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1987; 24:111.
  102. Ali BH, Logani S, Kozlov KL, et al. Progression of retinal nerve fiber myelination in childhood. Am J Ophthalmol 1994; 118:515.
  103. Kushner BJ. Functional amblyopia associated with abnormalities of the optic nerve. Arch Ophthalmol 1984; 102:683.
  104. De Jong PT, Bistervels B, Cosgrove J, et al. Medullated nerve fibers. A sign of multiple basal cell nevi (Gorlin's) syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol 1985; 103:1833.
  105. Lorentzen SE. Drusen of the optic disc. Dan Med Bull 1967; 14:293.
  106. Kurz-Levin MM, Landau K. A comparison of imaging techniques for diagnosing drusen of the optic nerve head. Arch Ophthalmol 1999; 117:1045.
  107. Boldt HC, Byrne SF, DiBernardo C. Echographic evaluation of optic disc drusen. J Clin Neuroophthalmol 1991; 11:85.
  108. Merchant KY, Su D, Park SC, et al. Enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography of optic nerve head drusen. Ophthalmology 2013; 120:1409.
  109. Mustonen E, Nieminen H. Optic disc drusen--a photographic study. I. Autofluorescence pictures and fluorescein angiography. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1982; 60:849.
  110. Rosenberg MA, Savino PJ, Glaser JS. A clinical analysis of pseudopapilledema. I. Population, laterality, acuity, refractive error, ophthalmoscopic characteristics, and coincident disease. Arch Ophthalmol 1979; 97:65.
  111. Puck A, Tso MO, Fishman GA. Drusen of the optic nerve associated with retinitis pigmentosa. Arch Ophthalmol 1985; 103:231.
  112. Grover S, Fishman GA, Brown J Jr. Frequency of optic disc or parapapillary nerve fiber layer drusen in retinitis pigmentosa. Ophthalmology 1997; 104:295.
  113. Edwards A, Grover S, Fishman GA. Frequency of photographically apparent optic disc and parapapillary nerve fiber layer drusen in Usher syndrome. Retina 1996; 16:388.
  114. Nischal KK, Hingorani M, Bentley CR, et al. Ocular ultrasound in Alagille syndrome: a new sign. Ophthalmology 1997; 104:79.
  115. Pierro L, Brancato R, Minicucci M, Pece A. Echographic diagnosis of Drusen of the optic nerve head in patients with angioid streaks. Ophthalmologica 1994; 208:239.
  116. Beck RW, Corbett JJ, Thompson HS, Sergott RC. Decreased visual acuity from optic disc drusen. Arch Ophthalmol 1985; 103:1155.
  117. Palmer E, Gale J, Crowston JG, Wells AP. Optic Nerve Head Drusen: An Update. Neuroophthalmology 2018; 42:367.
  118. Ahmadi H, Fotesko K, Ba-Ali S, et al. Optic disc drusen in patients diagnosed with normal tension glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol 2023; 101:277.
  119. Bianchi-Marzoli S, Rizzo JF 3rd, Brancato R, Lessell S. Quantitative analysis of optic disc cupping in compressive optic neuropathy. Ophthalmology 1995; 102:436.
  120. Kupersmith MJ, Krohn D. Cupping of the optic disc with compressive lesions of the anterior visual pathway. Ann Ophthalmol 1984; 16:948.
  121. Hayreh SS, Jonas JB. Optic disc morphology after arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Ophthalmology 2001; 108:1586.
  122. Brodsky MC. Periventricular leukomalacia: an intracranial cause of pseudoglaucomatous cupping. Arch Ophthalmol 2001; 119:626.
  123. Jacobson L, Hellström A, Flodmark O. Large cups in normal-sized optic discs: a variant of optic nerve hypoplasia in children with periventricular leukomalacia. Arch Ophthalmol 1997; 115:1263.
  124. Parmley VC, Schiffman JS, Maitland CG, et al. Does neuroretinitis rule out multiple sclerosis? Arch Neurol 1987; 44:1045.
  125. Arnold AC, Costa RM, Dumitrascu OM. The spectrum of optic disc ischemia in patients younger than 50 years (an Amercian Ophthalmological Society thesis). Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 2013; 111:93.
  126. Liu GT, Galetta SL, Rorke LB, et al. Gangliogliomas involving the optic chiasm. Neurology 1996; 46:1669.
  127. Stark KL, Kaufman B, Lee BC, et al. Visual recovery after a year of craniopharyngioma-related amaurosis: report of a nine-year-old child and a review of pathophysiologic mechanisms. J AAPOS 1999; 3:366.
  128. Wang YC, Huang JS, Wu CJ, et al. A huge osteoblastoma with aneurysmal bone cyst in skull base. Clin Imaging 2001; 25:247.
  129. Yee RD, Cogan DG, Thorp TR, Schut L. Optic nerve compression due to aneurysmal bone cyst. Arch Ophthalmol 1977; 95:2176.
  130. Sullivan TJ, Wright JE. Non-traumatic orbital haemorrhage. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2000; 28:26.
  131. Kaye LC, Kaye SB, Lagnado R, et al. Cerebral arteriovenous malformation presenting as visual deterioration in a child. Dev Med Child Neurol 2000; 42:704.
  132. Ishikawa T, Ito T, Shoji E, Inukai K. Compressive optic nerve atrophy resulting from a distorted internal carotid artery. Pediatr Neurol 2000; 22:322.
  133. Neumann D, Isenberg SJ, Rosenbaum AL, et al. Ultrasonographically guided injection of corticosteroids for the treatment of retroseptal capillary hemangiomas in infants. J AAPOS 1997; 1:34.
  134. Curran EL, Fleming JC, Rice K, Wang WC. Orbital compression syndrome in sickle cell disease. Ophthalmology 1997; 104:1610.
  135. Castelnuovo P, Mauri S, Bignami M. Spontaneous compressive orbital emphysema of rhinogenic origin. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2000; 257:533.
  136. Yavuzer R, Khilnani R, Jackson IT, Audet B. A case of atypical McCune-Albright syndrome requiring optic nerve decompression. Ann Plast Surg 1999; 43:430.
  137. Birchall D, Goodall KL, Noble JL, Jackson A. Graves ophthalmopathy: intracranial fat prolapse on CT images as an indicator of optic nerve compression. Radiology 1996; 200:123.
  138. Shapiro F. Osteopetrosis. Current clinical considerations. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1993; :34.
  139. Votruba M, Fitzke FW, Holder GE, et al. Clinical features in affected individuals from 21 pedigrees with dominant optic atrophy. Arch Ophthalmol 1998; 116:351.
Topic 6267 Version 18.0

References

آیا می خواهید مدیلیب را به صفحه اصلی خود اضافه کنید؟