Version May 2024
| Central nervous system disorders |
| Vascular (ischemic/hemorrhagic stroke*, arteriovenous malformations [AVMs], temporal arteritis) |
| Infectious (encephalitis*, meningitis, brain abscess, neurosyphillis) |
| Structural (head trauma*, intracranial neoplasms, brainstem neoplasms, multiple sclerosis, syringomyelia, hydrocephalus) |
| Vagus and phrenic nerve irritation |
| Goiter*, pharyngitis*, laryngitis, hair or foreign-body irritation of tympanic membrane, neck cyst or other tumor |
| Gastrointestinal disorders |
| Gastric distention, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, gastric carcinoma, abdominal abscesses, gallbladder disease, inflammatory bowel disease, hepatitis, aerophagia, esophageal distention, esophagitis, bowel obstruction |
| Thoracic disorders |
| Enlarged lymph nodes secondary to infection or neoplasm*, pneumonia, empyema, bronchitis, asthma, pleuritis, aortic aneurysm, mediastinitis, mediastinal tumors, chest trauma, pulmonary embolism |
| Cardiovascular disorders |
| Myocardial infarction, pericarditis |
| Toxic-metabolic |
| Alcohol*, diabetes mellitus, hypocalcemia, hypocapnia, hyponatremia, uremia |
| Postoperative |
| General anesthesia, intubation (stimulation of glottis), neck extension (stretching phrenic nerve roots), gastric distention, traction on viscera |
| Drugs |
| Alpha methyldopa, short-acting barbiturates, chemotherapeutic agents (eg, carboplatin), dexamethasone, diazepam |
| Psychogenic |
| Anorexia nervosa, conversion reaction, excitement, stress, schizophrenia, malingering |
| Other infectious |
| Subphrenic abscess, malaria, tuberculosis, herpes zoster, COVID-19[1] |
Reference:
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