Version May 2024
Estrogens increase the risk of endometrial cancer. Close clinical surveillance of all women taking estrogens is important. Adequate diagnostic measures, including endometrial sampling when indicated, to rule out malignancy in all cases of undiagnosed persistent or recurring abnormal vaginal bleeding. There is no evidence that the use of "natural" estrogens results in a different endometrial risk profile than synthetic estrogens at equivalent estrogen doses.
Estrogens with and without progestins should not be used for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. The Women's Health Initiative (WHI) study reported increased risks of myocardial infarction, stroke, pulmonary emboli, and deep vein thrombosis in postmenopausal women (50 to 79 years of age) during 5 years of treatment with oral conjugated estrogens (0.625 mg) combined with medroxyprogesterone (2.5 mg), relative to placebo.
The Women's Health Initiative (WHI) study reported increased risks of invasive breast cancer in postmenopausal women (50 to 79 years of age) during 5 years of treatment with oral conjugated estrogens (0.625 mg) combined with medroxyprogesterone (2.5 mg) relative to placebo.
The Women's Health Initiative Memory Study (WHIMS) a substudy of WHI, reported an increased risk of developing probable dementia in postmenopausal women 65 years of age or older during 4 years of treatment with oral conjugated estrogens plus medroxyprogesterone acetate relative to placebo. It is unknown whether this finding applies to younger postmenopausal women or to women taking estrogen alone therapy.
Other doses of conjugated estrogens with medroxyprogesterone acetate, and other combinations and dosage forms of estrogens and progestins were not studied in the WHI clinical trials and, in the absence of comparable data, these risks should be assumed to be similar. Because of these risks, estrogens with or without progestins should be prescribed at the lowest effective doses and for the shortest duration consistent with treatment goals and risks for the individual woman.
Breast cancer, metastatic (appropriately selected patients): Males and postmenopausal females: Oral: 10 mg 3 times/day for at least 3 months.
Prostate cancer, advanced: Oral: 1.25 to 2.5 mg 3 times/day.
Secondary amenorrhea, hypoestrogenism (alternative agent):
Manufacturer’s labeling: Oral: 1.25 mg/day cyclically (3 weeks on and 1 week off). Adjust dosage upward or downward, according to the severity of symptoms and patient response. For maintenance, adjust dosage to lowest level that will provide effective control. Estrogen is given with a progestogen (ie, a natural progesterone or synthetic progestin) in a patient with a uterus.
Vasomotor symptoms associated with menopause (alternative agent): Note: For use in symptomatic patients who are <60 years of age or within 10 years of menopause who do not have contraindications to hormone therapy (eg, breast cancer) (NAMS 2022). Nonoral estrogen preparations are preferred in patients with hypertriglyceridemia, risk factors for venous thromboembolic disease, active gallbladder disease, and/or migraine headache with aura (Martin 2022; Renoux 2010). Initiate at the lowest dose and increase approximately every 4 weeks as needed to relieve symptoms (Martin 2022). Evaluate routinely to minimize drug exposure and optimize administration route. Younger patients (eg, bilateral oophorectomy) may require higher doses. In patients with a uterus, give estrogen with a progestogen (ie, a natural progesterone or synthetic progestin), dosed either cyclically (preferred in late menopausal transition or early postmenopause) or continuously (preferred if >2 to 3 years postmenopause) (Martin 2022; NAMS 2022).
Oral: Initial: 0.3 mg once daily. Dosage range: 0.3 to 1.25 mg once daily; dosed either cyclically or continuously (Martin 2022; NAMS 2022).
Duration of therapy: Not clearly established; continued use may be appropriate in patients ≥60 years of age or >10 years after menopause with a low risk of cardiovascular disease and breast cancer and with persistent vasomotor symptoms after attempted taper/discontinuation of estrogen and trial of alternative therapies. Evaluate routinely for comorbidities and appropriateness of lower doses, nonoral routes of administration (preferred in patients ≥60 years of age), choice of progestogen, and discontinuation of therapy (NAMS 2022).
Vulvar and vaginal atrophy associated with menopause: Oral: 0.3 to ≥1.25 mg/day, initiate at the lowest dose and adjust based on patient response. Administer cyclically (3 weeks on and 1 week off).
No dosage adjustment provided in manufacturer's labeling; use with caution.
No dosage adjustment provided in manufacturer's labeling; use is contraindicated with hepatic impairment or dysfunction.
Note: The Beers Criteria recommends avoiding systemic estrogen therapy in postmenopausal patients ≥65 years of age (independent of diagnosis or condition). In older postmenopausal patients already taking systemic estrogens, consider deprescribing (Beers Criteria [AGS 2023]). Duration of use is not clearly established; continued use may be appropriate in patients ≥60 years of age or >10 years after menopause with a low risk of cardiovascular disease and breast cancer with persistent vasomotor symptoms after attempted taper/discontinuation of estrogen and trial of alternative therapies. Evaluate routinely for comorbidities and appropriateness of lower doses, nonoral routes of administration (preferred in patients ≥60 years of age), choice of progestogen, and discontinuation of therapy (NAMS 2022).
Refer to adult dosing.
The following adverse drug reactions and incidences are derived from product labeling unless otherwise specified. Frequency not defined.
Cardiovascular: Cerebrovascular accident, edema, hypertension, local thrombophlebitis, myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, retinal thrombosis, venous thromboembolism
Central nervous system: Chorea, dementia (exacerbation), depression, dizziness, exacerbation of epilepsy, headache, irritability, migraine, mood disorder, nervousness
Dermatologic: Chloasma, erythema multiforme, erythema nodosum, pruritus, loss of scalp hair, skin rash, urticaria
Endocrine & metabolic: Change in libido, exacerbation of porphyria, fibrocystic breast changes, galactorrhea, hirsutism, hypocalcemia, menstrual disease (alterations in frequency and flow of menstrual patterns), premenstrual-like syndrome, weight gain, weight loss
Gastrointestinal: Abdominal cramps, bloating, carbohydrate intolerance, gallbladder disease, nausea, pancreatitis, vomiting
Genitourinary: Breakthrough bleeding, breast hypertrophy, breast tenderness, change in cervical ectropion, change in cervical secretions, cystitis-like syndrome, dysmenorrhea, endometrial hyperplasia, nipple discharge, vulvovaginal candidiasis, vaginitis
Hematologic & oncologic: Endometrial carcinoma, hemorrhagic eruption, malignant neoplasm of breast, malignant neoplasm of ovary, uterine fibroids (increased size)
Hepatic: Cholestatic jaundice, exacerbation of hepatic hemangioma (enlargement)
Hypersensitivity: Anaphylactoid reaction, anaphylaxis, angioedema
Neuromuscular & skeletal: Arthralgia, leg cramps
Ophthalmic: Contact lens intolerance, change in corneal curvature (steepening)
Respiratory: Exacerbation of asthma
Hypersensitivity to estrogens or any component of the formulation; undiagnosed abnormal genital bleeding; DVT or PE (current or history of); active or recent (within 1 year) arterial thromboembolic disease (eg, stroke, MI); breast cancer (known, suspected or history of), except in appropriately selected patients being treated for metastatic disease; known or suspected estrogen-dependent tumor; hepatic dysfunction or disease; known or suspected pregnancy
Concerns related to adverse effects:
• Breast cancer: Based on data from the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) studies, an increased risk of invasive breast cancer was observed in patients who are postmenopausal using conjugated estrogens (CE) in combination with medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA). Observational studies noted this risk declines once therapy is discontinued. The WHI study did not observe an increased risk of invasive breast cancer in patients with a hysterectomy using CE alone. The risk of breast cancer in patients who are postmenopausal on hormone therapy may depend upon type of estrogen and/or progestogen, dose, timing of therapy initiation, duration of therapy, route of administration, and individual patient characteristics (AACE/ACE [Cobin 2017]; NAMS 2022). Hormone therapy may be associated with increased breast density (NAMS 2022); an increase in abnormal mammogram findings requiring further evaluation has been reported with estrogen alone or in combination with progestogen therapy. Estrogen use may lead to severe hypercalcemia in patients with breast cancer and bone metastases; discontinue estrogen if hypercalcemia occurs.
• Dementia: Do not use estrogens with or without progestogen to prevent dementia. In the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study (WHIMS), an increased incidence of dementia was observed in women ≥65 years of age taking CE alone or in combination with MPA. Because the WHI memory studies were conducted in patients ≥65 years of age, it is unknown if these findings apply to younger patients who are postmenopausal. However, hormone therapy is not recommended at any age to prevent or treat cognitive decline or dementia (NAMS 2022).
• Endometrial cancer: The use of unopposed estrogen in patients with a uterus is associated with an increased risk of endometrial cancer. The addition of a progestogen to estrogen therapy may decrease the risk of endometrial hyperplasia, a precursor to endometrial cancer. Perform adequate diagnostic measures, including endometrial sampling if indicated, to rule out malignancy in patients who are postmenopausal with undiagnosed abnormal vaginal bleeding. There is no evidence that the use of natural estrogens results in a different endometrial risk profile than synthetic estrogens at equivalent estrogen doses. The risk of endometrial cancer appears to be dose and duration dependent, greatest with use ≥5 years, and may persist following discontinuation of therapy. The use of a progestogen is not generally required when low doses of estrogen are used locally for vaginal atrophy, although long term data (>1 year) supporting this recommendation are lacking (NAMS 2022).
• Endometriosis: Estrogens may exacerbate endometriosis. Malignant transformation of residual endometrial implants has been reported posthysterectomy with unopposed estrogen therapy. Consider adding a progestogen in patients with residual endometriosis posthysterectomy.
• Inherited thrombophilia: Patients with inherited thrombophilias (eg, protein C or S deficiency) may have increased risk of venous thromboembolism (DeSancho 2010; van Vlijmen 2011).
• Lipid effects: Estrogen compounds are generally associated with lipid effects such as increased HDL-cholesterol and decreased LDL-cholesterol. Triglycerides may also be increased in patients with preexisting hypertriglyceridemia; discontinue if pancreatitis occurs.
• Ovarian cancer: Available information related to the use of menopausal estrogen or estrogen/progestogen therapy and risk of ovarian cancer is inconsistent. If an association is present, the absolute risk is likely rare and may be influenced by duration of therapy (ES [Stuenkel 2015]; NAMS 2022).
• Retinal vascular thrombosis: Estrogens may cause retinal vascular thrombosis; discontinue if migraine, loss of vision, proptosis, diplopia, or other visual disturbances occur; discontinue permanently if papilledema or retinal vascular lesions are observed on examination.
Disease-related concerns:
• Asthma: Use caution in patients with asthma; may exacerbate disease.
• Cardiovascular disease: Do not use estrogens with or without progestogen to prevent cardiovascular disease. The WHI studies reported an increased risk of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and stroke with CE and an increased risk of DVT, stroke, pulmonary emboli (PE) and myocardial infarction (MI) with CE with MPA in patients who are postmenopausal and 50 to 79 years of age. Additional risk factors include diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, SLE, obesity, tobacco use, and/or history of venous thromboembolism (VTE). Adverse cardiovascular events have also been reported in patients taking estrogens for prostate cancer. Manage risk factors appropriately; discontinue use immediately if adverse cardiovascular events occur or are suspected. Due to possible lower risk of thrombotic events, transdermal administration may be preferred for treating vasomotor symptoms of menopause in patients with risk factors for cardiovascular disease (AACE/ACE [Cobin 2017]; ACOG 556 2013; ES [Stuenkel 2015]).
• Diabetes mellitus: May impair glucose tolerance; use caution in patients with diabetes mellitus. Prior to therapy, consider age, cardiovascular, and metabolic risk factors in patients previously diagnosed with diabetes (AACE/ACE [Cobin 2017]).
• Diseases exacerbated by fluid retention: Use with caution in patients with diseases which may be exacerbated by fluid retention, including cardiac or renal dysfunction.
• Epilepsy: Use caution with epilepsy; may exacerbate disease.
• Gallbladder disease: Use of postmenopausal estrogen may be associated with an increased risk of gallbladder disease requiring surgery.
• Hepatic dysfunction: Estrogens are poorly metabolized in patients with hepatic dysfunction. Use caution with a history of cholestatic jaundice associated with prior estrogen use or pregnancy. Discontinue if jaundice develops or if acute or chronic hepatic disturbances occur.
• Hepatic hemangiomas: Use with caution in patients with hepatic hemangiomas; may exacerbate disease.
• Hereditary angioedema: Exogenous estrogens may exacerbate angioedema symptoms in patients with hereditary angioedema.
• Hypocalcemia: Use with caution in patients with severe hypocalcemia.
• Migraine: Use caution with migraine; may exacerbate disease.
• Porphyria: Use with caution in patients with porphyria; may exacerbate disease.
• SLE: Use with caution in patients with SLE; may exacerbate disease.
Special populations:
• Surgery: Whenever possible, discontinue estrogens at least 4 to 6 weeks prior to elective surgery associated with an increased risk of thromboembolism or during periods of prolonged immobilization.
Other warnings/precautions:
• Duration of use: Not clearly established; continued use may be appropriate in patients ≥60 years of age or >10 years after menopause with a low risk of cardiovascular disease and breast cancer with persistent vasomotor symptoms after attempted taper/discontinuation of estrogen and trial of alternative therapies. Evaluate routinely for comorbidities and appropriateness of lower doses, nonoral routes of administration (preferred in patients ≥60 years of age), choice of progestogen, and discontinuation of therapy (NAMS 2022).
• Genitourinary syndrome of menopause: Low-dose vaginal estrogen is preferred over systemic therapy for genitourinary syndrome of menopause in the absence of vasomotor symptoms due to increased efficacy and decreased systemic effects (eg, cardiovascular effects, cancer risk) (Crandall 2018; NAMS 2022).
• Risks vs benefits: When used for the relief of menopausal symptoms, the benefit-risk of hormone therapy is most favorable if started in patients who have no contraindications to therapy, are <60 years of age, within 10 years of menopause onset, have a favorable lipid profile, and do not have the factor V Leiden genotype or metabolic syndrome. Consider cardiovascular disease risk factors when evaluating therapy and route of administration (AACE/ACE [Cobin 2017]; NAMS 2022). Use for the shortest duration possible at the lowest effective dose consistent with treatment goals. Reevaluate patients as clinically appropriate to determine if treatment is still necessary. Available data related to treatment risks are from WHI studies, which evaluated oral CE 0.625 mg with or without MPA 2.5 mg relative to placebo in patients who were postmenopausal. Other combinations and dosage forms of estrogens and progestins were not studied. Assume outcomes reported from clinical trials using CE with or without MPA to be similar for other doses and other dosage forms of estrogens and progestogens until comparable data becomes available.
Excipient information presented when available (limited, particularly for generics); consult specific product labeling.
Tablet, Oral:
Menest: 0.3 mg, 0.625 mg, 1.25 mg, 2.5 mg
No
Tablets (Menest Oral)
0.3 mg (per each): $2.25
0.625 mg (per each): $3.19
1.25 mg (per each): $4.45
2.5 mg (per each): $6.33
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Hazardous agent (NIOSH 2016 [group 2]).
Use appropriate precautions for receiving, handling, administration, and disposal. Gloves (single) should be worn during receiving, unpacking, and placing in storage. NIOSH recommends single gloving for administration of intact tablets or capsules (NIOSH 2016). Assess risk to determine appropriate containment strategy (USP-NF 2017).
Breast cancer, metastatic: Treatment of metastatic breast cancer (palliation) in appropriately selected males and postmenopausal females.
Prostate cancer: Palliative therapy of advanced prostatic carcinoma.
Secondary amenorrhea, hypoestrogenism: Treatment of hypoestrogenism due to hypogonadism, castration, or primary ovarian failure.
Vasomotor symptoms associated with menopause: Treatment of moderate to severe vasomotor symptoms associated with menopause.
Vulvar and vaginal atrophy associated with menopause: Treatment of moderate to severe symptoms of vulvar and vaginal atrophy associated with menopause.
Limitations of use: When used solely for the treatment of vulvar and vaginal atrophy, consider topical vaginal products.
Note: The International Society for the Study of Women’s Sexual Health and The North American Menopause Society have endorsed the term genitourinary syndrome of menopause (GSM) as new terminology for vulvovaginal atrophy. The term GSM encompasses all genital and urinary signs and symptoms associated with a loss of estrogen due to menopause (Portman 2014).
The Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) includes this medication among its list of drugs that have a heightened risk of causing significant patient harm when used in error.
Beers Criteria: Estrogens (oral or topical patch products only), with or without progestins, are identified in the Beers Criteria as potentially inappropriate medications to be avoided in postmenopausal patients ≥65 years of age (independent of diagnosis or condition) due to their carcinogenic potential (breast and endometrium) and lack of cardioprotection or cognitive protection. Starting therapy in postmenopausal patients ≥60 years of age has greater risks (eg, heart disease, stroke, blood clots, dementia) than benefits. In postmenopausal patients already taking systemic estrogens, consider deprescribing (Beers Criteria [AGS 2023]).
Estragyn: Brand name for estrone vaginal [Canada] and estrogens esterified oral [Canada]
Substrate of CYP1A2 (minor), CYP2B6 (minor), CYP2C9 (minor), CYP2E1 (minor), CYP3A4 (major); Note: Assignment of Major/Minor substrate status based on clinically relevant drug interaction potential
Note: Interacting drugs may not be individually listed below if they are part of a group interaction (eg, individual drugs within “CYP3A4 Inducers [Strong]” are NOT listed). For a complete list of drug interactions by individual drug name and detailed management recommendations, use the Lexicomp drug interactions program by clicking on the “Launch drug interactions program” link above.
Ajmaline: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Ajmaline. Specifically, the risk for cholestasis may be increased. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Anastrozole: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the therapeutic effect of Anastrozole. Risk X: Avoid combination
Anthrax Immune Globulin (Human): Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the thrombogenic effect of Anthrax Immune Globulin (Human). Risk C: Monitor therapy
Antidiabetic Agents: Hyperglycemia-Associated Agents may diminish the therapeutic effect of Antidiabetic Agents. Risk C: Monitor therapy
C1 inhibitors: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the thrombogenic effect of C1 inhibitors. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Chenodiol: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the therapeutic effect of Chenodiol. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Chlorprothixene: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Chlorprothixene. Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the therapeutic effect of Chlorprothixene. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Clofazimine: May increase the serum concentration of CYP3A4 Substrates (High risk with Inhibitors). Risk C: Monitor therapy
Corticosteroids (Systemic): Estrogen Derivatives may increase the serum concentration of Corticosteroids (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy
Cosyntropin: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the diagnostic effect of Cosyntropin. Management: Discontinue estrogen containing drugs 4 to 6 weeks prior to cosyntropin (ACTH) testing. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
CYP3A4 Inducers (Moderate): May decrease the serum concentration of Estrogen Derivatives. Risk C: Monitor therapy
CYP3A4 Inducers (Strong): May decrease the serum concentration of Estrogen Derivatives. Risk C: Monitor therapy
CYP3A4 Inhibitors (Strong): May increase the serum concentration of Estrogen Derivatives. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Dantrolene: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the hepatotoxic effect of Dantrolene. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Dehydroepiandrosterone: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Estrogen Derivatives. Risk X: Avoid combination
Exemestane: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the therapeutic effect of Exemestane. Risk X: Avoid combination
Fexinidazole: May increase the serum concentration of CYP3A4 Substrates (High risk with Inhibitors). Risk X: Avoid combination
Fusidic Acid (Systemic): May increase the serum concentration of CYP3A4 Substrates (High risk with Inhibitors). Risk X: Avoid combination
Growth Hormone Analogs: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the therapeutic effect of Growth Hormone Analogs. Management: Initiate somapacitan at 2 mg once weekly in patients receiving oral estrogens. Monitor for reduced efficacy of growth hormone analogs; increased doses may be required. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Hemin: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the therapeutic effect of Hemin. Risk X: Avoid combination
Hyaluronidase: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the therapeutic effect of Hyaluronidase. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Hydrocortisone (Systemic): Estrogen Derivatives may increase the serum concentration of Hydrocortisone (Systemic). Estrogen Derivatives may decrease the serum concentration of Hydrocortisone (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy
Immune Globulin: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the thrombogenic effect of Immune Globulin. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Indium 111 Capromab Pendetide: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the diagnostic effect of Indium 111 Capromab Pendetide. Risk X: Avoid combination
LamoTRIgine: Estrogen Derivatives may decrease the serum concentration of LamoTRIgine. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Lenalidomide: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the thrombogenic effect of Lenalidomide. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Melatonin: Estrogen Derivatives may increase the serum concentration of Melatonin. Risk C: Monitor therapy
MetyraPONE: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the diagnostic effect of MetyraPONE. Management: Consider alternatives to the use of the metyrapone test in patients taking estrogen derivatives. Risk D: Consider therapy modification
Mivacurium: Estrogen Derivatives may increase the serum concentration of Mivacurium. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agents (COX-2 Selective): May enhance the thrombogenic effect of Estrogen Derivatives. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agents (COX-2 Selective) may increase the serum concentration of Estrogen Derivatives. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Ospemifene: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Ospemifene. Risk X: Avoid combination
Pomalidomide: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the thrombogenic effect of Pomalidomide. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Protease Inhibitors: May decrease the serum concentration of Estrogen Derivatives. Protease Inhibitors may increase the serum concentration of Estrogen Derivatives. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Raloxifene: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Raloxifene. Risk X: Avoid combination
ROPINIRole: Estrogen Derivatives may increase the serum concentration of ROPINIRole. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Succinylcholine: Estrogen Derivatives may increase the serum concentration of Succinylcholine. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Tacrolimus (Systemic): Estrogen Derivatives may increase the serum concentration of Tacrolimus (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy
Thalidomide: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the thrombogenic effect of Thalidomide. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Thyroid Products: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the therapeutic effect of Thyroid Products. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Tranexamic Acid: Estrogen Derivatives may enhance the thrombogenic effect of Tranexamic Acid. Risk X: Avoid combination
Ursodiol: Estrogen Derivatives may diminish the therapeutic effect of Ursodiol. Risk C: Monitor therapy
Folic acid absorption may be decreased.
Estrogens esterified are contraindicated for use during pregnancy.
In general, the use of estrogen and progestogen as in combination hormonal contraceptives have not been associated with teratogenic effects when inadvertently taken early in pregnancy.
Estrogens are present in breast milk.
Estrogen has been shown to decrease the quantity and quality of human milk. The manufacturer recommends caution be used if administered to a patient who is breastfeeding.
Prior to therapy, baseline risk for breast cancer and CVD. During therapy, age appropriate breast and pelvic exams; blood pressure; unscheduled bleeding lasting >6 months for endometrial pathology (sooner in patients with obesity, diabetes, or a history of endometrial cancer); serum triglycerides (2 weeks after starting therapy in patients with baseline level >200 mg/dL); TSH (6 to 12 weeks after starting oral therapy in patients taking thyroid replacement) (ES [Stuenkel 2015]).
Menopausal symptoms: Efficacy beginning 1 to 3 months after starting therapy, then every 6 to 12 months as appropriate. Duration of treatment should be evaluated at least annually (ES [Stuenkel 2015]).
Note: Monitoring of FSH and serum estradiol is not useful when managing vasomotor symptoms or genitourinary symptoms of menopause.
Esterified estrogens contain a mixture of estrogenic substances; the principle component is estrone. Preparations contain 75% to 85% sodium estrone sulfate and 6% to 15% sodium equilin sulfate such that the total is not <90%. Estrogens are responsible for the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics. Estradiol is the principle intracellular human estrogen and is more potent than estrone and estriol at the receptor level; it is the primary estrogen secreted prior to menopause. In males and following menopause in females, estrone and estrone sulfate are more highly produced. Estrogens modulate the pituitary secretion of gonadotropins, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone through a negative feedback system; estrogen replacement reduces elevated levels of these hormones.
Absorption: Readily
Distribution: Widely distributed; high concentrations in the sex hormone target organs
Protein binding: Bound to sex hormone-binding globulin and albumin
Metabolism: Hepatic; partial metabolism via CYP3A4 enzymes; estradiol is reversibly converted to estrone and estriol; oral estradiol also undergoes enterohepatic recirculation by conjugation in the liver, followed by excretion of sulfate and glucuronide conjugates into the bile, then hydrolysis in the intestine and estrogen reabsorption. Sulfate conjugates are the primary form found in patients who are postmenopausal.
Excretion: Primarily urine (as estradiol, estrone, estriol, and their glucuronide and sulfate conjugates)
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