Overview of common hip fractures in adults

INTRODUCTION — 

As the population of older adults increases worldwide so too does the number of hip fractures. Older adults have weaker bone and are more likely to fall due to diminished balance, medication side effects, and difficulty maneuvering around environmental hazards. Clinicians in many fields are involved in caring for patients with hip fractures and should be familiar with the basic types, assessment, and management of these injuries.

This topic will review the major types of hip fractures, including basic anatomy, fracture classification, and clinical and radiographic assessment. The details of surgical treatment are beyond the scope of this review. The epidemiology of hip fractures, their prevention, preoperative assessment, and the prevention and management of common medical complications associated with hip fractures are all discussed separately. (See "Hip fracture in older adults: Epidemiology and medical management" and "Falls in older persons: Risk factors and patient evaluation" and "Anesthesia for orthopedic trauma".)

ANATOMIC CONSIDERATIONS — 

The hip joint is a "ball and socket" joint consisting of the acetabulum (socket) and the femoral head (ball) (picture 1 and picture 2). The femoral neck connects the femoral head to the proximal portion of the femoral shaft and attaches to the intertrochanteric region (figure 1). The term "hip fracture" is applied to fractures in any of these locations.

Disruption of the blood supply to the head and neck of the femur can impair fracture healing in these structures (figure 2 and figure 3). An extracapsular vascular ring encircles the base of the femoral neck. This ring gives rise to feeder vessels (ascending cervical arteries) that run parallel to the femoral neck up to the femoral head. The arteries of this ring are supplied by the medial and lateral femoral circumflex arteries, which arise from the deep femoral artery. The foveal artery (a branch of the obturator artery) provides supplementary blood flow to the femoral head. It courses through the ligamentum teres into the fovea. However, the foveal artery alone is not thought to be adequate to meet the needs of the femoral head.

The femoral head (figure 4) is a sphere that is slightly flattened superiorly. The arrangement of its cancellous bone is oriented along the principal lines of stress. Most important of these arrangements are the primary medial trabeculae (which resist compression) and the primary lateral trabeculae (which resist tension). These structures enable the bone to endure the strong forces exerted across the proximal femur (figure 5 and figure 6). As an example, a force 2.6 times body weight is transmitted across the hip in a one-legged stance.

The prognosis of hip fractures varies by anatomic location. The intertrochanteric region contains a large amount of cancellous bone with a good blood supply. Therefore, intertrochanteric fractures typically heal well if reduction and fixation are properly performed. However, intertrochanteric fractures can become displaced because of the actions of the iliopsoas muscle (figure 7), which pulls on the lesser trochanter, and the major external rotator and abductor muscles of the hip, which pull on the greater trochanter.

In contrast to the intertrochanteric region, the femoral neck has little cancellous bone, a thin periosteum, and a relatively poor blood supply that can be disrupted by injury. Fractures in this area have a higher incidence of complications, such as avascular necrosis and degenerative changes in the femoral head.

FRACTURE CLASSIFICATION — 

Hip fractures are classified by anatomic location and by fracture type. The general categories include intracapsular (femoral neck and head) (picture 2 and figure 8) and extracapsular (intertrochanteric and subtrochanteric) (figure 1) fractures. Extracapsular is defined as extending from the extracapsular femoral neck to the area just distal to the lesser trochanter.

For reasons discussed above, intracapsular fractures have a higher rate of nonunion or malunion and are more likely to lead to avascular necrosis of the femoral head. Subtrochanteric fractures have an increased need for implant devices, such as intramedullary nails (or rods) and have higher rates of implant failure due to the high stresses placed upon this part of the femur. (See 'Anatomic considerations' above.)

Distinct classification schemes for femoral neck fractures and intertrochanteric fractures are described below. (See 'Femoral neck fractures' below and 'Intertrochanteric fractures' below.)

INITIAL ASSESSMENT AND MEDICAL MANAGEMENT — 

Initial care of the patient with a hip fracture consists primarily of providing adequate analgesia and consulting an orthopedic surgeon. Pain is often undertreated in older adults, which is inhumane and increases the risk of delirium [1]. Intravenous opioids provide faster relief, but intramuscular or oral medications may be used. If resources are available, regional nerve blocks are highly effective at reducing pain and minimizing the sedation and other potential complications caused by opioids. (See "Anesthesia for orthopedic trauma", section on 'Hip fracture' and "Lower extremity nerve blocks: Techniques".)

In patients at higher risk for hemorrhage, it is prudent to obtain blood for type and screen or type and crossmatch at the time of presentation. According to retrospective studies, patients at higher risk have at least two of the following features [2,3]:

●Age over 75 years

●Initial hemoglobin below 12 g/dL (SI 120 g/L)

●Peritrochanteric fracture

Comorbidities (eg, ischemic heart disease) must be considered when determining the need for blood transfusion or other interventions. (See "Indications and hemoglobin thresholds for RBC transfusion in adults".)

It is important to assess cognitive function and possible impairment when patients present and to reassess them during their hospitalization, as cognitive impairment can hinder recovery [4]. Particularly in older adult patients injured during a fall, the clinician should take a careful history to determine the cause of the fall (eg, syncope) and perform a thorough physical examination looking for internal and additional orthopedic injuries (eg, intracranial hemorrhage, cervical spine fracture). Conditions associated with the fracture may include dehydration, possibly complicated by rhabdomyolysis due to prolonged downtime. Other common comorbidities to consider include diabetes and heart disease. (See "Falls in older persons: Risk factors and patient evaluation" and "Geriatric trauma: Initial evaluation and management".)

Prophylaxis against deep vein thrombosis and wound infection is important and discussed separately. (See "Hip fracture in older adults: Epidemiology and medical management", section on 'Medical management' and "Prevention of venous thromboembolism in adults undergoing hip fracture repair or hip or knee replacement" and "Antimicrobial prophylaxis for prevention of surgical site infection in adults", section on 'Hip fracture repair'.)

A systematic review concluded that neither skin nor skeletal traction prior to surgery provides any benefit in reducing pain or improving the ease or quality of hip fracture reduction [5]. Eleven studies involving 1654 patients, primarily older adults, were included. The effectiveness of traction for specific types of hip fractures could not be determined. The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons (AAOS) recommends against preoperative traction [6].

TIMING OF SURGERY — 

The timing of surgery to repair a hip fracture has an important impact on outcomes. These issues are discussed separately. (See "Hip fracture in older adults: Epidemiology and medical management", section on 'Timing of surgical intervention'.)

FEMORAL NECK FRACTURES

Pertinent anatomy — Femoral neck fractures are intracapsular. The tenuous blood supply to the femoral neck increases the risk of complications, such as avascular necrosis (figure 9 and figure 3). The presence of a fracture-dislocation further increases such risks. Hip anatomy is discussed in greater detail above. (See 'Anatomic considerations' above.)

Mechanism of injury — Femoral neck fractures tend to occur in older adults who fall. Among these patients, there are several possible mechanisms of injury:

●A fall directly onto the lateral hip

●A twisting mechanism in which the patient's foot is planted and the body rotates

●A sudden spontaneous completion of a fatigue (or insufficiency) fracture, which then causes a fall

In younger individuals, femoral neck fractures generally occur as a result of major trauma, such as a motor vehicle collision or a fall from a height. The femur is usually axially loaded. If the hip is abducted at the time of injury, a femoral neck fracture occurs; if adducted, the result is often a fracture-dislocation. (See "Pelvic trauma: Initial evaluation and management".)

Symptoms and examination findings — Older adults with femoral neck fractures usually describe the sudden onset of hip pain, either before or following a fall, and the inability to walk, although some patients with a minimally impacted fracture may continue to bear weight. A displaced hip fracture usually involves a significant amount of groin pain and the leg may appear externally rotated and shortened. Typically, there is little bruising because the fracture is intracapsular. With insufficiency fractures, there may be no obvious history of trauma and the patient may complain of vague knee, buttock, groin, or thigh pain.

Particularly with older adult patients, the clinician should determine the reason for any fall (eg, syncope, stroke), assess for additional orthopedic and internal injuries, and initiate management as indicated.

Diagnostic imaging

Plain radiographs — Plain radiographs of the hip, including an anteroposterior (AP) view with maximal internal rotation and a lateral view, should be obtained in all patients with a suspected hip fracture (image 1 and image 2). Comparison with the uninvolved hip can be helpful, and therefore, an AP pelvis radiograph is frequently obtained.

Radiographs should be examined for alterations in the normal trabecular pattern, defects in the cortex, and shortening or angulation of the femoral neck. The normal angle between the femoral neck and the femoral shaft on an AP radiograph ranges between 120 and 135 degrees. A femoral neck-shaft angle less than 120 degrees is indicative of coxa vara (figure 10), and an angle greater than 135 degrees is considered coxa valga. Abnormal angles suggest a fracture.

The Garden classification scheme is based upon radiographic appearance and is used specifically for femoral neck fractures [7]:

●Type 1 is an incomplete impaction fracture (image 3)

●Type 2 is a complete, nondisplaced fracture (image 4)

●Type 3 is a partially displaced fracture of the femoral head (image 5)

●Type 4 is a fully displaced fracture with complete loss of continuity between fragments (image 6)

Models using artificial intelligence show promise for the diagnosis of hip fractures, which may be a useful tool in settings with limited resources or inexperienced clinicians [8,9].

Advanced imaging and occult fracture — If plain radiographs are unrevealing but pain is significant and clinical suspicion is high or the patient is at high risk, advanced imaging is needed to determine the presence of an occult fracture. Options include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), bone scan, and computed tomography (CT). Multiple studies highlight the importance of obtaining additional imaging whenever fracture is suspected, but initial plain radiographs are unrevealing [10-13]. In a systematic review of 35 studies involving 2992 older adult patients with suspected hip fracture (mean age 77), 1110 (39 percent) had an occult injury [13].

MRI is the preferred technique for advanced imaging if initial radiographs are negative. MRI has the advantages of earlier fracture detection and the absence of radiation exposure. CT can be used if MRI is not readily available [6,14-17]. CT is faster than MRI, often more easily accessed, and less expensive; and it has fewer contraindications. In a systematic review of 13 heterogeneous studies that included 496 hip fractures, CT had 94 percent sensitivity and 100 percent specificity for detecting occult proximal femoral fractures [18]. If the CT scan is normal but clinical concern for occult hip fracture persists, MRI can be performed. Bone scan is another option, but it can take up to 72 hours following an injury before diagnostic findings appear.

Indications for orthopedic consultation — Femoral neck fractures should be referred to an orthopedic surgeon, as most will require surgical fixation. Knowledgeable primary care physicians may opt to manage a patient with an old, nondisplaced fracture who is walking with minimal pain or one who is nonambulatory or a poor surgical candidate. Co-management with an orthopedic surgeon may be appropriate in such circumstances.

Treatment of femoral neck fractures — The primary care clinician often plays an important role in assessing the patient's preinjury level of function and comorbidities to help determine appropriate treatment goals. Ambulatory patients should be treated aggressively, typically with surgical intervention, with the goal of restoring their preinjury level of activity as quickly as possible.

●Open reduction with internal fixation (ORIF) versus arthroplasty – Debate continues among surgeons as to whether ORIF or arthroplasty is the best treatment for appropriate surgical candidates. In general, nondisplaced femoral neck fractures are typically treated with screw fixation, and displaced femoral neck fractures are treated with arthroplasty, particularly in individuals over 65 years old [19]. Younger patients with displaced femoral neck fractures may opt for ORIF to avoid hip arthroplasty.

In a systematic review of this subject that included 19 trials (3044 participants), internal fixation was found to result in lower morbidity in several categories, including blood loss and risk of deep wound infection [20]. However, patients treated with arthroplasty had significantly lower reoperation rates. No differences were identified in mortality or regaining previous residential status. Treatment with a total or partial hip arthroplasty allows for earlier recovery and may reduce the risk of avascular necrosis and nonunion. A subsequent retrospective analysis of a database of 9640 patients undergoing operative repair of a hip fracture reported that ORIF of femoral neck fractures was associated with the highest percentage of total adverse events and major adverse events (primarily death), whereas hemiarthroplasty was associated with a higher percentage of minor adverse events (eg, urinary tract infection) [21]. An analysis of six high-quality studies by the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgery (AAOS) found better functional outcomes and lower reoperation rates with arthroplasty, and no statistically significant difference in mortality when compared with internal fixation, leading the AAOS to recommend the former treatment [6].

●Total versus hemiarthroplasty for displaced fractures – The appropriate indications for total versus hemiarthroplasty for the management of displaced femoral neck fractures are a subject of ongoing study. An international randomized trial performed in 80 medical centers and involving 1495 ambulatory patients who sustained a displaced femoral neck fracture reported no significant differences in important clinical outcomes at two years between those treated with total arthroplasty and those treated with hemiarthroplasty [22]. The primary endpoint was the need for a secondary hip procedure (which, as noted by a reviewer, can be devastating for older adult patients [23]) within 24 months; secondary outcomes included death, complications, and quality-of-life measures. A systematic review of 16 trials (3084 patients) reached similar conclusions [24]. With moderate certainty, the reviewers found no clinically significant difference in the rate of revision surgery at up to five years of follow-up and no significant difference in the incidence of patient function, mortality, periprosthetic fracture, or joint dislocation at up to three years of follow-up.

However, the conclusion that outcomes are similar is not consistent across all studies. In a retrospective registry study (published after the systematic review) of over 14,000 cases, total hip arthroplasty was associated with a lower risk of revision surgery compared with hemiarthroplasty (both unipolar and bipolar) in patients with a femoral neck fracture who were 60 to 79 years old and without significant medical comorbidities [25]. The AAOS prefers total hip arthroplasty over hemiarthroplasty as there is a small functional outcome benefit, however, this is coupled with a slightly higher rate of dislocation/instability [6].

In those who undergo arthroplasty for femoral neck fractures, cemented stems are generally preferred over uncemented stems because of the lower periprosthetic fracture risk and improved short-term outcomes, although this approach may increase surgical time and blood loss.

Nonoperative management is generally reserved for debilitated patients, but may be reasonable in patients with stable, impacted fractures [26]. One randomized trial of 23 patients reported that 10 of 16 patients treated conservatively developed a nonunion, while none of those treated surgically did so [27]. However, a prospective study of nonoperative treatment for patients with impacted femoral neck fractures (n = 170) found that 86 percent healed [28]. The authors concluded that such management is reasonable but should be restricted to patients over 70 years and in poor health. Mortality in the study population was 16 percent.

Complications — Infection and thromboembolism are potentially life-threatening complications associated with hip fractures for which prophylaxis should be given. The prevention and management of these complications is discussed separately. (See "Hip fracture in older adults: Epidemiology and medical management" and "Prevention of venous thromboembolism in adults undergoing hip fracture repair or hip or knee replacement" and "Antimicrobial prophylaxis for prevention of surgical site infection in adults", section on 'Hip fracture repair'.)

Femoral neck fractures have a relatively high rate of complications compared with extracapsular hip fractures. Potential complications following surgical repair include infection, chronic pain, dislocation, nonunion, avascular necrosis (AVN), and post-traumatic arthritic changes. (See "Fever in the surgical patient" and "Treatment of nontraumatic hip osteonecrosis (avascular necrosis of the femoral head) in adults".)

Reported nonunion rates range from 0 to 4 percent to over 30 percent. Selection bias may play a role in this wide range [29]. A number of factors determine the risk of nonunion, including patient age, bone density, fracture displacement, fracture comminution, reduction quality, and the prosthetic device and its position. Nonunion or loss of reduction can present with groin, hip, or thigh pain that never fully resolves following surgery, or increases after a period of improvement.

Patients with displaced fractures are at greatest risk for AVN [30]. AVN may be painless initially, but over time causes pain and restricts motion. Typically, the pain is localized to the groin or ipsilateral buttock region but may manifest as referred knee pain and increases with weight-bearing. MRI or bone scan may be necessary for diagnosis when AVN is suspected, as changes on plain radiographs do not reliably appear until six months after AVN first develops. MRI is used to assess patients with titanium hardware; a bone scan is used in those whose fracture fixation hardware is ferromagnetic. (See "Treatment of nontraumatic hip osteonecrosis (avascular necrosis of the femoral head) in adults".)

While radiographs are often obtained at postoperative visits to screen for AVN or nonunion, their utility is questionable. In a retrospective chart review of 583 patients, abnormal routine postoperative radiographs obtained in asymptomatic individuals did not change management or outcomes [31].

INTERTROCHANTERIC FRACTURES

Pertinent anatomy — Intertrochanteric fractures are extracapsular, and thus at lower risk for complications related to interruption of the blood supply, but are at risk for displacement [32]. Hip anatomy is discussed in greater detail above. (See 'Anatomic considerations' above.)

Mechanism of injury — Among older adults, intertrochanteric fractures occur as the result of a fall. These fractures are rare in younger individuals, but may occur with major trauma, such as a fall from a height or a motor vehicle collision. In the younger population, there is a high incidence of associated internal and orthopedic injury [33,34].

Symptoms and examination findings — Older adults with intertrochanteric hip fractures usually describe hip pain, swelling, and ecchymosis. The injured leg may be shortened and externally rotated if the fracture is displaced. As opposed to femoral neck fractures, intertrochanteric fractures are extracapsular and significant ecchymosis may be present, depending upon the time elapsed since the injury. A large volume of blood can be lost into the thigh and hemodynamic status should be closely monitored.

The patient will have local tenderness over the trochanteric area but should not have tenderness over the distal femoral shaft or pelvis. Such findings suggest additional injuries.

A thorough examination, including all other extremities and the spine, should be performed due to the high association of intertrochanteric fractures with concomitant injury. The contralateral hip should be palpated and taken through its full range of motion.

Particularly with older adults, the clinician should determine the reason for any fall (eg, syncope, stroke), assess for internal injuries, and initiate management as indicated.

Diagnostic imaging — Plain radiographs of the hip, including an anteroposterior (AP) view with maximal internal rotation and a lateral view, should be obtained in all patients with a suspected hip fracture (image 7 and image 8 and image 9 and image 10). Comparison with the uninvolved hip can be helpful, and therefore, an AP pelvis radiograph is frequently ordered (image 2 and image 11).

If plain radiographs are unrevealing but a fracture is suspected clinically, MRI or CT scan can be obtained. Alternatively, a bone scan may be performed 48 to 72 hours after the injury. The limitations of plain radiographs for hip fracture are described above. (See 'Diagnostic imaging' above.)

Intertrochanteric fractures can be classified as stable, for which a near-anatomic reduction is achievable, or unstable [35]. In stable fractures, the lesser trochanter is not displaced, there is no comminution, and the medial cortices of the proximal and distal fragments are in alignment. In unstable fractures, displacement occurs, comminution is present, or multiple fracture lines exist.

Indications for orthopedic consultation — The large majority of intertrochanteric fractures are treated surgically and orthopedic consultation should be obtained in all cases. Early studies showed a higher mortality rate for fractures treated by closed means compared with operative repair [36,37]. Therefore, most injuries, including all displaced fractures, are treated with open reduction and internal fixation.

Treatment of intertrochanteric fractures — In consultation with the orthopedic surgeon, the primary care physician should assess the patient's ambulation, overall functional status, and medical comorbidities and then determine the appropriate definitive management. Ambulatory patients should be treated aggressively, typically with surgical intervention, with the goal of restoring their preinjury level of activity as quickly as possible. Nonoperative management with good pain control may be the best approach for the nonambulatory patient.

Stable fractures are typically treated with either a sliding hip screw or a cephalo-medullary device (ie, intramedullary [IM] nail) [6]. Unstable fractures are treated with a cephalo-medullary device. A systematic review of 76 studies (66 randomized trials) involving just under 11,000 patients and a subsequent large, multicenter randomized trial reported no clinically significant difference in functional outcome measures between IM and extramedullary fixation techniques [38,39].

Nonoperative management is often appropriate in the following circumstances:

●Nonambulatory or patients with dementia who have mild pain

●Patients with old nondisplaced or impacted fractures and mild pain

●Unstable patients with major, uncorrectable comorbid disease

●Patients at the end stage of a terminal illness [40]

Surgery may be delayed in patients with conditions that increase the risk of postoperative complications but are amenable to treatment. Such conditions might include sepsis or skin breakdown over the surgical site.

Complications — Complications for intertrochanteric fractures are similar to those for femoral neck fractures and include infection, thromboembolism, pressure sores, and nonunion. Infection and thromboembolism are potentially life-threatening complications for which prophylaxis should be given. The prevention and management of these complications are discussed separately. (See "Hip fracture in older adults: Epidemiology and medical management" and "Prevention of venous thromboembolism in adults undergoing hip fracture repair or hip or knee replacement" and "Antimicrobial prophylaxis for prevention of surgical site infection in adults", section on 'Hip fracture repair'.)

Nonunion is reported in only 1 to 2 percent of intertrochanteric fractures [32]. This is likely because the fracture occurs primarily in cancellous bone. Nonunion is typically diagnosed by a persistent radiolucent defect at the fracture site four to seven months after fracture fixation. However, in patients with abundant callous formation, loss of alignment may be the sole radiographic finding.

The rates of avascular necrosis (AVN) and nonunion are lower with intertrochanteric fractures than with femoral neck fractures [35]. However, overall mortality and functional outcome are generally worse with intertrochanteric fractures. One case series reported a 15 percent mortality rate after intertrochanteric hip fractures [41]. This relatively high rate was attributed to the number of major perioperative medical problems and postoperative complications.

Fixation failure occurs in up to 20 percent with some fracture patterns, typically within four months of fixation. AVN occurs at higher rates in patients with more complex or displaced fractures and in females. The typical appearance is varus collapse of the proximal fragment and cutout of the compression screw.

TROCHANTERIC FRACTURES — 

Isolated trochanteric fractures usually result from forceful muscular contraction of a fixed limb and occur most often in young, active adults.

Pertinent anatomy — The greater trochanter is a bony prominence on the lateral aspect of the proximal femur. It serves as the site for multiple muscle insertions, including the hip abductors (gluteus medius and minimus) and external rotators (piriformis, gemelli, obturators).

The lesser trochanter lies on the posteromedial aspect of the proximal femur, inferior to the femoral neck. The iliopsoas, which is primarily responsible for hip flexion, inserts on the lesser trochanter.

Mechanism of injury — Isolated fractures of the greater and lesser trochanters, particularly in young patients, are typically avulsion fractures caused by forceful muscle contraction. Resisted hip flexion leads to a strong contraction of the iliopsoas that can avulse the lesser trochanter. A forceful contraction of the hip abductors or a fall onto the lateral hip may cause a greater trochanteric fracture.

Among older adults, isolated fractures of the trochanter can occur from direct trauma (eg, fall) but have also been associated with pathologic fractures. (See "Clinical presentation and evaluation of complete and impending pathologic fractures in patients with metastatic bone disease, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma".)

Symptoms and examination findings — Lesser trochanteric fractures generally cause pain in the groin but may also present with knee or posterior thigh pain that is worse with hip flexion and rotation. Greater trochanteric fractures cause hip pain that increases with abduction and tenderness over the greater trochanter.

Diagnostic imaging — Anteroposterior (AP) and lateral radiographs are used for diagnosis. For evaluation of the lesser trochanter, an AP view with the leg in supported external rotation is obtained. The greater trochanter is typically well visualized on standard AP views (image 12). The limitations of plain radiographs for hip fracture are described above. (See 'Diagnostic imaging' above.)

It is often prudent to obtain an MRI in patients at high risk of extension of a trochanteric fracture, such as older adults and other patients with diminished bone density. In a retrospective observational study of 13 patients with radiographic findings of a greater trochanteric fracture, extension of the fracture line into the intertrochanteric or femoral neck region was found in 10 patients on subsequent MRI studies [42]. Similar findings were described in another study of older adult patients [43].

Treatment and indications for orthopedic consultation — Most trochanteric fractures heal well with nonoperative management, unless significant displacement (>1 cm) is present. The patient generally must remain non-weight-bearing for three to four weeks. Many patients are able to return to full activity as soon as two to three months following the injury. Displaced fractures should be referred to an orthopedic surgeon for possible open reduction and internal fixation.

In older individuals, isolated lesser trochanteric fractures have been associated with pathologic fractures. In the absence of trauma, therefore, it is prudent to evaluate for metastases [35-37]. (See "Clinical presentation and evaluation of complete and impending pathologic fractures in patients with metastatic bone disease, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma".)

Complications — Direct complications from isolated greater or lesser trochanteric fractures are rare. There may be a slight loss of abduction power in the case of greater trochanteric fracture or in hip flexion with lesser trochanteric fractures. Inappropriate prolonged immobilization can cause joint contracture. This can be avoided with early implementation of a progressive range of motion exercise program.

STRESS FRACTURES OF THE FEMORAL NECK — 

Stress fractures of the femoral neck are less common than traumatic fractures and occur primarily in younger adults, primarily distance runners, and military recruits. These fractures are discussed in detail separately. (See "Femoral stress fractures in adults".)

PRE AND POSTOPERATIVE CARE — 

The risk of major perioperative complications, including infection, thromboembolism, and delirium, can be substantially reduced with proper management. Another important question is the timing of surgery. Such management issues are discussed separately. (See "Hip fracture in older adults: Epidemiology and medical management".)

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION — 

Several UpToDate topics provide additional information about fractures, including the physiology of fracture healing, how to describe radiographs of fractures to consultants, acute and definitive fracture care (including how to make a cast), and the complications associated with fractures. These topics can be accessed using the links below:

●(See "General principles of fracture management: Bone healing and fracture description".)

●(See "General principles of fracture management: Fracture patterns and description in children".)

●(See "General principles of definitive fracture management".)

●(See "General principles of acute fracture management".)

●(See "General principles of fracture management: Early and late complications".)

SOCIETY GUIDELINE LINKS — 

Links to society and government-sponsored guidelines from selected countries and regions around the world are provided separately. (See "Society guideline links: Hip and groin pain" and "Society guideline links: Hip fracture in adults" and "Society guideline links: Acute pain management".)

INFORMATION FOR PATIENTS — 

UpToDate offers two types of patient education materials, "The Basics" and "Beyond the Basics." The Basics patient education pieces are written in plain language, at the 5^th to 6^th grade reading level, and they answer the four or five key questions a patient might have about a given condition. These articles are best for patients who want a general overview and who prefer short, easy-to-read materials. Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are longer, more sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at the 10^th to 12^th grade reading level and are best for patients who want in-depth information and are comfortable with some medical jargon.

Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage you to print or e-mail these topics to your patients. (You can also locate patient education articles on a variety of subjects by searching on "patient info" and the keyword(s) of interest.)

●Basics topics (see "Patient education: Hip fracture (The Basics)" and "Patient education: Hip fracture in adults – Discharge instructions (The Basics)" and "Patient education: Fractures in adults (The Basics)")

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

●Epidemiology – Hip fractures are common worldwide and substantially increase the risk of death and major morbidity in older adults. (See "Hip fracture in older adults: Epidemiology and medical management".)

●Clinical anatomy and fracture classification – Hip fractures are classified by anatomic location and fracture type. The general categories include intracapsular (femoral neck and head) and extracapsular (intertrochanteric and subtrochanteric) fractures. Fracture classification is described further in the text. Intracapsular fractures have higher rates of nonunion, malunion, and avascular necrosis of the femoral head because the blood supply is more easily disrupted (figure 2 and figure 3). (See 'Fracture classification' above and 'Anatomic considerations' above.)

●Initial care – Initial management of the patient with a hip fracture consists primarily of providing adequate analgesia and consulting an orthopedic surgeon. Regional nerve blocks can be effective. It is prudent to obtain blood for type and crossmatch in patients with any two of the following risk factors: age over 75 years, initial hemoglobin below 12 g/dL (SI 120 g/L), and a peritrochanteric fracture. We suggest not using skin or skeletal traction (Grade 2B). (See 'Initial assessment and medical management' above.)

●Prophylaxis against thromboembolism and infection – These important interventions are discussed separately. (See "Hip fracture in older adults: Epidemiology and medical management".)

●Diagnostic imaging – Plain radiographs of the hip, including an anteroposterior (AP) view with maximal internal rotation and a lateral view, should be obtained in all patients with a suspected hip fracture. Comparison with the uninvolved hip can be helpful, and therefore, an AP pelvis radiograph is frequently obtained. If plain radiographs are unrevealing but pain is significant or clinical suspicion is high, MRI is the best study to determine whether an occult fracture exists. (See 'Diagnostic imaging' above.)

●Trauma evaluation – Particularly with older adult patients, the clinician should determine the reason for any fall (eg, syncope, stroke), assess for additional orthopedic and internal injuries (eg, intracranial hemorrhage, cervical spine fracture), and initiate management as indicated. (See "Geriatric trauma: Initial evaluation and management".)

●Medical and functional evaluation – In consultation with the orthopedic surgeon, the primary physician should assess the patient's ambulation, overall functional status, and medical comorbidities and then determine the appropriate definitive management. Aside from those in severely debilitated patients, most hip fractures are treated surgically. (See "Hip fracture in older adults: Epidemiology and medical management".)

●Basic fracture types

•Femoral neck fractures – Femoral neck fractures are intracapsular (image 5 and image 3). The tenuous blood supply to the femoral neck increases the risk of complications. Fracture-dislocations are at greatest risk. A displaced hip fracture usually causes significant groin pain; the leg may appear externally rotated and shortened. Typically, there is little bruising. With insufficiency fractures, there may be no obvious history of trauma and the patient may complain of vague knee, buttock, groin, or thigh pain. (See 'Anatomic considerations' above and 'Femoral neck fractures' above.)

•Intertrochanteric fractures – Intertrochanteric fractures are extracapsular and at lower risk for complications (image 8 and image 7). Significant ecchymosis may be present, depending upon the time elapsed since the injury. A large volume of blood can be lost into the thigh and hemodynamic status should be closely monitored. (See 'Intertrochanteric fractures' above.)

•Trochanteric fractures – Isolated fractures of the greater and lesser trochanters (image 12) are typically avulsion fractures caused by forceful muscle contraction in active young adults. In older adults, such injuries can occur from direct trauma (eg, fall), but have also been associated with pathologic fractures (eg, from bone metastases). (See 'Trochanteric fractures' above.)